Full text of "The Imperial Gazetter Of India Vol Xviii"

See other formats

THE

IMPERIAL GAZETTEER
OF INDIA

VOL. xvin

MORAM TO NAYAGARH

NEW EDITION

PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF HIS MAJESTY’S
SECRETARY OP STATE FOR INDIA IN COUNCIL

OXFORD

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1908

HENRY FROWDK, M.A.

PUBLISHKR TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
LONDON* EDINBURGH
NEW YORK AND TORONTO

INTRODUCTORY NOTES

NoTi.s ON Transliteration

Vowel-Soiinds

a has the sound of a in ‘ woman.’
a has the sound of <7 in ‘ fathei
e has the vowel-sound m ‘ gi ey.*
i has the sound of / in * pin.^

I has the sound of / in ‘ police.'
o has the sound of ^ in ‘ bone '

II ha«* *-he sound -n Dull ’
u has the sound of u in ‘ flute.’
ai has the \owel-sound in ‘ mine ’
au has the \ owel-sound in ‘ house ’

It should be stated that no attempt has been made to distinguish
between the long and shoit sounds of e and o in the Diavidian
languages, which possess the vowel-sounds in ‘ bet ’ and ‘ hot ’ in
addition to those given above. Nor has it been thought necessaiy
to mark vowels as long in cases where mistakes in pronunciation
were not likely to be made.

Consonanh

Most Indian languages have different foims foi a number of con-
sonants, such as d, /, r, &c., maiked in scientific works by the use
of dots or italics. As the European ear distinguishes these with
difficulty in oi dinary pronunciation, it has been considered undesir-
able to embarrass the reader wnth them ; and only two notes aie
lequired. In the first place, the Aiabic ky a strong guttural, has
been repiesented by k instead of which is often used. Secondly,
it should be lemaiked that aspirated consonants are common; and,
in particulai, dh and Ih (except in Burma) never have the sound of
th in ‘ this ’ or ‘ thin,’ but should be pronounced as in ^ w^oodhouse '
and ‘ boathook.’

TNTROD UCTOm ' iVO 7 T.S
Bni vicse Wads

Burmese and some of the languages on the fiontiei of ('hina have
the following special sounds : —

aw has the vowel-sound in ‘ law’ ’

0 and u are pronounced as m German,
gy IS pronounced almost like/ in ‘ jew’cl ’
ky is pronounced almost like cli in ‘ chuich ’
th is pronounced m some cases as in * this/ in some cases as in
* thin.'

w after a consonant has the force of Thus, yiva and five

are disyllables, pronounced as if written and pinve.

It should also be noted that, wheieas in Indian woids the accent
or stress is distributed almost equally on each syllable, in Buimese
there is a tendency to throw special stress on the last syllabic.

General

The names of some places — e.g. Calcutta, Bombay, Lucknow.
Cawnpore — have obtained a populai fixity of spelling, while special
forms have been officially prescribed foi others Names of peisons
are often spelt and pronounced differently in different paits of India;
but the variations have been made as few as possible by assimilating
forms almost alike, especially w^here a paiticulai spelling has been
generally adopted in English books.

Notes on Money, Prices, Weights and Measures

As the currency of India is based upon the rupee, all statements
with legard to money throughout the Gazetteer have neccssanly been
expressed in rupees, noi has it been found possible to add generally
a conversion into sterling Down to about 1873 gold value of
the rupee (containing 165 grains of pure silver) was appioximately
equal to 25*., or one-tenth of a £ ; and for that peiiod it is easy to
convert rupees into sterling by striking off the final cipher (Ks 1,000
= £100) But after 1873, owing to the depreciation of silver as
compared with gold throughout the world, theie came a serious and
progressive fall in the exchange, until at one time the gold value of
the rupee dropped as low as is. In order to provide a remedy for
the heavy loss caused to the Government of India in lespect of its
gold payments to be made in England, and also to relieve foieign
trade and finance from the inconvenience due to constant and
unforeseen fluctuations in exchange, it was lesolved in 1893 to close
the mints to the free coinage of silver, and thus force up the value of
the rupee by restricting the circulation. The intention was to raise

INTRODUCTORY NOTES

the exchange value of the rupee to is 4^., and then intioduce a gold
standard (though not necessarily a gold cunency) at the rate of Rs. 15
= £1. This policy has been completely successful. From 1899 on-
wards the value of the rupee has been maintained, with insignificant
fluctuations, at the proposed rate of is 4! ; and consequently since
that date thiee rupees have been equivalent to two rupees befoie 1873
For the intermediate peiiod, between 1873 and 1899, it is manifestly
impossible to adopt any fixed sterling value for a constantly changing
rupee. But since 1899, if it is desired to convert rupees into steiling,
not only must the final cipher be stiuck oif (as before 1873), but
also one-third must be subtracted from the result Thus Rs. 1,000
= £100 — -I = (about) £67.

Another matter in connexion with the expression of money state-
ments in terms of rupees requiies to be explained. The method of
numerical notation in India differs fiom that which prevails through-
out Europe. Laige numbeis are not punctuated in hundreds of thou-
sands and millions, but in lakhs and crores. A lakh is one hundred
thousand (written out as 1,00,000), and a crore is one hundred lakhs
or ten millions (written out as 1,00,00,000) Consequently, accord-
ing to the exchange value of the rupee, a lakh of rupees (Rs. 1,00,000)
may be read as the equivalent of £10,000 before 1873, and as the
equivalent of (about) £6,667 lifter 1899 ; while a ciore of rupees
(Rs. 1,00,00,000) may similarly be read as the equivalent of
£1,000,000 before 1873, and as the equivalent of (about) £666,667
after 1899.

Finally, it should be mentioned that the rupee is divided into
16 annas, a fraction commonly used foi many purposes by both
natives and Euiopeans The anna was formerly leckoned as i^d , ;
it may now be considered as exactly coi responding to id. The
anna is again subdivided into 12 pies.

The various systems of weights used in India combine unifoimity
of scale with immense variations in the weight of units. The scale
used geneially throughout Northern India, and less commonly in
Madras and Bombay, may be thus expressed * one maund = 40 seers ;
one seer = 16 chittaks or 80 tolas. The actual weight of a seer
varies greatly fiom District to District, and even from village to
village ; but in the standard system the tola is 180 grains Troy
(the exact weight of the rupee), and the seer thus weighs 2*057 lb.,
and the maund 82*28 lb. This standaid is used in official leports
and throughout the Gazetteer,

For calculating retail puces, the universal custom in India is to
express them in te^ms of seers to the rupee. Thus, when prices
change, what vanes is not the amount of money to be paid for the

ixmonrc roK v \ orns

same quantity, but the (iiiantit\ to be (ihiauu'd foi llu- saino amount
of money. In othei i\oids, piuo in India aic quantitv piues, not
money prices When the figuie of quantity up, this of coutse
means that the price has gone down, which is at first sight pciplexmg
to an English leader. It may, howcvei, be mentioned that quantity
prices aie not altogethci unknown in England, especially at small
shops, wheie pennywoiths of many gioceiies can he bought Eggs,
likewise, are commonly sold at a \ai)ing numbei foi the shilling.
If it be desiied to conveit quantity [iiiccs from Indian into English
denominations without ha\ing iccouise to money puces (which would
often be misleading), the following scale may be adopted— based
upon the assumptions that a seei is cxai tl> 2 lb., and that the value
of the rupee remains constant at n 4^' • i seer pci rupee = (about)
3 lb for 2s . ; 2 seers per rupee = (about) 6 11 1. for 2s. , and so on.

The name of the unit for square mcasuiement in India geiieiallj
rs the which varies gieatly in diffeicnl parts of the eounti).
But aieas have always been expicssed tliioughoul the Craiei'/cer either
in square miles or m acies.

MAP

Mysore

IMPERIAL GAZETTEER
OF INDIA

VOLUME XVIII

Moram. — Town in the Tuljapur taluk of Osmanabad Distuct,
Hydeiabad State, situated in 17° 47' N and 76° 29' E. Population
(1901), 5,692 Large quantities of giain and jaggery are exported from
here via Sholapui and Akalkot. Two weekly bazars are held — one on
Sundays foi general tiade, and the other on Mondays foi the sale of
cloth only. A new bazar, Osmanganj, is iindci construction Moiam
contains a school

Morar {Murdr) —Cantonment in the Gwalioi Stale, Cential India,
situated in 26° 14' N and 78° 14' E., 2 miles from the Moral Road
station on the Gieat Indian Peninsula Railway, and on the banks of
the Moral nvei, a small stieam tiibutai> to the Vaisali Population
(1901), 19,179 In foimei days the waters of the iivei weie dammed
up so as to form a considerable lake, which was noted for the species
of fish known as the Banhus morarensis which abounded in it The
town lies 4 miles from Lashkar city, with which it is connected by
a broad load. The station is laid out on the usual plan, but is
lemarkable for the numerous fine avenues of laige trees which line
the roads. The substantial stone bai racks built in 1870 for the British
tioops are now occupied by the State legiments, the officers’ bungalows
being used by European and native officials in the State service

Moral was founded in 1844 as a cantonment for the Gwalioi Con-
tingent, the brigadier in command and a force ol all thiee arms being
stationed here. In 1857 the most serious rising in Central India took
place at this station. Signs of disaffection among the men of the
Contingent were eaily discernible , and on June 14 the troops mutinied,
and killed six officers, the clergyman, and several othei Euiopeans.
The rest escaped to Agra with the assistance of the Maharaja On
May 30, 1858, Morar was occupied by the troops of Tantia Topi, the
Nawab of Banda, and the Rani of Jhansi, who forced Smdhia to vacate
Lashkai and letieat to Agra. On June t 6 Sii Hugh Rose drove
Tantia Topi out of Morar, and on the 20th reinstated Smdhia in his
capital Moiar lemaincd a British cantonment, gaiiisoned by a mixed

MORAR

force of Biitish and Native tioops, till 1886, when it was handed over to
Gwalioi in connexion with the exchanges of teriitoiy which took place
then. The State tioops now occupying the cantonment are a legiment
of Imperial Service Cavalry, the Imperial Service Tianspoit Coips,
three batteries, and two infantry legiments. Morar has of late yeais
become a considerable trading centie, especially for grain, the local
dues being lightei than those obtaining in Lashkar. Impetus has been
given to the tanning industry by the establishment of the State leathei
factory in the cantonment. The town contains a European church,
a State post office, a school for boys and anothei for girls, and two
hospitals, one military and the other civil, and foui laige Euiopean
cemeteries. Just beyond the cantonment limits is the Alijah Club
for European residents

Morchopna.— Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay

Moro. — Tdhtka in Hyderabad District, Sind, Bombay, lying between
26° 23' and 26° 55' N. and 67° 52' and 68° 20' E , with an aiea of 402
square miles The population in 1901 was 66,641, compaied with
57,646 in 1891 , the density is 166 persons per square mile. The
number of villages is 78, of v\hich Moro is the head-quarteis. Land
revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to about i 3 lakhs. The
tahika has now lost its bairen and sandy tracts, which have been
transferred to Nasrat. The chief crops aie joivar^ barjey, indigo,
gram, and rapeseed

Morrelganj. — Village in the Bagherhat subdivision of Khulna
District, Bengal, situated in 22° 27' N and 89° 52' E , on the Panguchi,
2\ miles above its confluence with the Baleswar 01 Haringhata, of
which It is a feedei. Population (1901), 972. Moiielganj was foimeily
the property of Messrs Monel and Lightfoot, who converted this pait
of the country from impenetrable jungle into a prosperous iice-growmg
tract dotted with thriving villages. The river, which here is tidal, is
about a quarter of a mile bioad, with deep watei from bank to bank,
affording good holding ground for ships, with a well-shelteied anchorage
It was declared a port by the Government of Bengal in November, 1869,
and buoys were laid down in the following month, but the effoit to make
It an entrep6t for sea-going trade was not attended with success. Its
position on a fine navigable river, commanding a iich iice country, still,
how^ever, lenders it a great centre of local tiade It is an important
steamer station of the Cachar-Sundarbans senice.

Morsi Taluk, — Taluk of Amraoti District, Berar, lying between
21° 12' and 21° 34' N. and 77° 48' and 78° 29' E., with an area of
622 square miles The population fell from 152,374 in 1891 to
^43)734 190I3 its density in the latter year being 231 persons per

square mile. The taluk contains 231 villages and foui towms, Morsi
(population, 8,313), the head-quarters, Warud (7,179), Srndurjvna

MORVI STATE

(6,86o)j and Nkr Pinglai (5,408) The demand foi land revenue m

1903-4 wab Rs. 5,i8j0O0, and for cesses Rs. 41,000. The taluk lies

chiefly in the feitile valley of the AVardha iivei, which bounds it on the
east and south-east, but a narrow tract along its north-westei n border
occupies the lower slopes of the Satpura Hills.

Morsi Town. — Head-quarteis of the taluk of the same name in
Amraoti District, Berar, situated m 21° 20' N. and 78° 4' E. Population
(1901), 8,313. The town contains eight ginning factories and two cotton-
presses, and a Suboidmale Judge and a Munsif hold then couits here

Morvi State. — State in the Kathiawar Political Agency, Bombay,
lying between 22° 23' and 23° 6' N and 70° 30' and 71® 3' E., with an
area of 822 square miles. The country is generally flat The rivei

Machhu, on which the town of Morvi stands, never runs dry, and is

crossed by a good bridge. The climate near the coast is good, but
fever is common thioughout the State. The annual rainfall averages
23 inches.

The Thakur Sahib of Morvi claims to be diiectly descended from
the Cutch line and not through the Navanagar family. He possesses
a small subdivision in Cutch with a port at Jangi. Many disputes
have arisen with the Rao of Cutch regarding this port and the sea-
borne trade The differences which exist between the two States find
a vent in obstructions oifeied to the tradei. Tradition represents the
chief of Morvi as the descendant of the eldest son of the Rao of Cutch
who, in the latter pait of the seventeenth centuiy, was muidered by
a younger brother, and whose family theieupon fled to this place, then
a dependency of Cutch Their possession of Morvi was subsequently
sanctioned by the Cutch lulei The chief entered into the same
engagements with the^BriLish Government as the other Kathiawar chiefs
in 1807. He holds a sajiad authoiizmg adoption, and the succession
of the house follows the rule of piimogenituie The chief is entitled
to a salute of ii guns. The present chief was created a K.C.I.E. in
1887, and subsequently in 1897 a G.C.I.E.

The population at the last four enumeiations was. (1872) 90,016,
(1881) 89,964, (1891) 105,335, and (1901) 87,496, showing a decrease
of 17 pei cent duiing the last decade, owing to the famine of 1899-
1900. In 1901 Hindus numbered 72,443, Musalmans 10,099, and
Jams 4,913. The capital is Morvi Town, and there are 140 villages

Grain, sugai-cane, and cotton are the principal pioducts. The area
cultivated is 345-! square miles, of which 3-| square miles are irrigated.
Irrigation is provided by 4,257 wells and by the Paneli water* works,
which iirigate 1,208 blghas, A veterinary hospital is maintained; and
horse-breeding is earned on by 14 stallions and 240 mares. Salt and
coaise cotton cloth aie manufactured A cotton-mill, established by
the State a few years ago, has lecently been closed ; but a cotton-

MORVI STATE

ginning factory and gas woikb aic still maintained. The chief articles
of export aie cotton, oil, g/il, wool, giain, hides and hoi ns , and the
chief articles of import aie timbei, cotton doth, oil, and coal. The
total trade b> sea and land amounted in 1903-4 to about 31 lakhs,
namely, imports 12 lakhs, and exports about 9 lakhs

The State oi\ns the poit of Vavania, on the Oulf of Cutch, and
maintains a good road between Moivi and Rajkot .V tiamway runs
from Morvi to the port of Navlakhi The Slate lailway, nearly 90 miles
in length, known as the Moivi line, has been partly converted to the
metre gauge , it pays a dividend of about 5 per cent. Steam and oil
launches are maintained by the State foi tiaffic between Navlakhi port
and Khan Rohar.

Morvi ranks as a first-class State in Kathiawai The chief has full
power over his own people, the trial of Biitish subjects foi capital
offences leqmring the previous peimission of the Agent to the
Goveinoi He enjoys an estimated revenue of more than 7I lakhs
(excluding the railway), chiefly deiived fiom land (4-! lakhs), and pays
a tribute of Rs 61,559 jointly tf) the Biitish Government, tlie Gaik-
war of Baioda, and the Nawab of Junagaih. The State (ontains foui
municipalities. In 1905 an aimed police foice of 176 men was main-
tained , theie are also 15 mounted men. The State ('ontains a Gential
jail and foui subsidiaiy jails, with a daily aveiage of 102 piisoners In
1903-4 theie weie 49 schools, with a total of 2,086 pupils, of whom
^55 girls, and 6 medical institutions, treating 25,000 patients
In the same year about 1,900 persons were vaccinated

Morvi Town {Morhi ). — Chief town of the State of the same name
in Kathiawar, Bombay, situated in 22° 49' N. and 70® 53' E , on the
west bank of the nver Machhu, which 22 miles farther north enters
the Gulf of Cutch Population (1901), 17,820 Morvi is the teiminus
of the Moivi State Railway, 35 miles distant from Rajkot. Old Morvi,
said to have been founded by Moi jethwa, is situated on the eastern
bank of the ruei, about a mile from the piesent town It was called
Mordhvajpuri and aftei wards Bhimoi. The present town is said to
derive its name from the IMorbo hill wheie Sanghji Jethwa defeated
a Vaghela Rana, and in commemoiation of his conquest founded the
present towm on the opposite bank of the river to Mordhvajpuri
Afterwards when Moidhvajpuii became waste m the w^ars of the end
of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century, most of the
wealthy inhabitants removed their dwellings to the present site m oider
to place the river between them and the foreign invader A made road
connects Moivi with the port of Vavania and the town of Tankaia
The towm contains a public paik and a libiary and several fine
buildings.

Mota Kotarna. — ketty State in Mvhi Kantha, Bombay.

MOULMEIN SUBDIVTSIOX

Moth. — Noith-westeni tahsil of Jhaiisi District, United Provinces,
conteiminous with the pargana of the same name, lying between
25° 32' and 25® 50' N. and 78° 46' and 79° 7' E., with an area of
279 square miles. Population fell fiom 59,089 in 1891 to 55,638 in
1901 There are 136 villages and two towns Chligaon (population,
4,028) and Moth (2,937), the tahsil head-quaiters. The demand foi
land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs 1,17,000, and for cesses Rs. 19,000
The density of population, 199 persons per square mile, is slightly
abo\e the District average The Betwa flows through the centie of
the tahsil The villages along its banks are liable to injury from the
erosion m lavines, and those east of the iiver are largely overgrown by
haas (Sacchariiin sponta 7 ieum\ which prevents cultivation, ^^'"est of the
Bet^^a good black soil is found in the north of the tahsil^ where it is
piotected and enriched by embankments, while in the south, where
the soil IS lighter, there is a little iriigation There is excellent grazing
foi cattle, and large quantities of ghi are exported from Chirgaon.
In 1902-3 the cultivated area was 118 sqiiaie miles, ot which onlv 2
^^ere irrigated.

Motihari Subdivision, — Head-quaiteis subdiMSion of Champaian
District, Bengal, lying between 26° j 6' and 2*f 1' N and 84° 30' and
85° iS' E., with an aiea of 1,518 squaie miles. The subdivision con-
sists of an alluvial tiact tia\ei.sed by the Sikiana iivei, in which Ihc
land IS le\el, fertile, and highly cultivated. The population in 1901
w^as 1,040,599, compared wnth 1,099,600 m 1891 The slight dc-
cicase was due to the famine of 1897, w'hich stimulated emigration and
diminished the fecundity of the people. The density is 686 persons
pei square mile, or nearl} twice as high as in the Bettiah subdivision.
It contains one town, Motihari (population, 13,730), the head-quarters ;
and 1,304 villages. Interesting archaeological lemains are found at
Araraj and Kesariya Sagauli was the scene of an outbreak in the
Mutiny.

Motihari Town. — Head-cjuaiteis of Champaran District, Bengal,
situated in 26° 40' N and 84° 55' E. Population (1901), 13,730.
Motihari was constituted a municipality in 1869 The income during
the decade ending 190 1-2 averaged Rs. 16,000, and the expenditure
Rs. 14,000 In 1903-4 the income w'as Rs. 22,000, of w'hich Rs. 8,000
w^as derived from a tax on houses and lands, and Rs 3,000 fiom a
municipal market; and the expenditme was Rs. 17,000 The town
IS pleasantly situated on the east bank of a lake, and contains the usual
public offices, a jail, and a school. The jail has accommodation for
356 prisoners , the chief industiie.s carried on are oil-pressing, dart-
weaving, net-making, and the manufactuic of stung money-bags
Motihari is the head-quailcis of a troop of the Bihai Light Horse.

Moulmein Subdivision, — Subdivision and township in the noith-

MOULMEIN SUBDIVISION

west cornel of Amherst Distiict, Lower Buima, with an area of 30
square miles, 15 of which are comprised in the Moulmein municipality
and 6 in Moulmein port. The township contains that part of the
District (outside municipal limits) which lies north of the Gyaing river,
where Kado (population, 2,934), an important forest ddpot, is situated.
The population, excluding the Moulmein municipality and port, was
8,168 in 1901 (chiefly Takings and Burmans), distiibuted in 40 villages.
The area cultivated in 1903-4 was 16 square miles, paying Rs. 23,400
land revenue

Moulmein Town (Buimese, Mawlamyaing), — Head-quarters of
Amheist Distiict and of the Tenasserim Division of Lower Burma,
situated in 16° 29' N. and 97® 38' E., 28 miles from the sea, on the
left bank of the Salween, at its confluence with the Gyaing and Ataran
In configuration the town has roughly the form of an inverted ‘ L,
the portion represented by the horizontal line following the course of
the Salween, and that lepresented by the vertical line the course of the
Ataran. The former contains four divisions of the town, the latter one.

As a British settlement, Moulmein dates fiom the year 1827, when
it was selected by General Sir Archibald Campbell as the capital for
the newly acquired Tenasserim province, its claims being held superior
to those of Amherst m the south and Martaban in the west. One of
Moulmein’s chief titles to fame is the gieat beauty of the scenery in
which it is set. The visitor entering the river from the Gulf of
Martaban is met by banks crowned with the most vaiied of evergieen
foliage, a marked contrast to the low-lying muddy flats that characterize
the mouths of the Hooghly or Iirawaddy. Right and left, parallel with
the banks, are low ranges of hills, on which aie peiched pagodas heie
and there, and up the iiver beyond the town a limestone eminence
about 2,000 feet in height, known as the Duke of Yoik’s Nose, stands
in bold lelief against the sky. From the plains surrounding the town
isolated limestone locks use abiuptly, forming one of the most marked
characteristics of the Moulmein scenery

Coming to the town itself, through the horizontal arm of the inverted
‘ L ’ runs a range of hills 300 feet in height, on which are built two
magnificent pagodas, the Uzina and Kyaikthanlan, the former in the
centre, the latter at the northern end. Midway between the two is
a third pagoda, from which the midday gun is fired and ships aie
signalled. From this ridge a view, haidly to be equalled in Burma
for beauty, is obtained of Moulmein nestling among the trees on the
western slopes. To the north and west he the meeting-place of the
rivers, the shipping in the stream, the wooded islands in the channel,
Martaban with its glistening pagoda overhanging the water, and the
dark hills of Bilugyun To the east, the Ataran may be seen winding
thiough the gieen plain, and the Taungwaing hills rise up in the south

MOULMEIN TOJVA‘

The town, which has an area of 15 squaie miles, is laid out on a fairly
legular plan, but is not altogether worthy of its gorgeous setting. It
stretches, long and narrow, along the bank of the Salween. Three main
roads run north and south, parallel to the river, two throughout the
entire length of the town, and one for about 2 miles. Numerous cross-
roads, mostly unmetalled, run east and west, one being continued by
means of the Nyaungbmzeik ferry into the country beyond the Ataran,
thus forming the main avenue by which food-supplies are brought into
Moulmein. The European residences are situated to the west of the
central ridge, for the most part in spacious and well-kept grounds.
The most notable buildings are Salween House, the official residence
of the Commissioner, built on the ndge , the masoniy law courts and
Government offices, at the foot of the rising ground , the General
Hospital j the Government schools , and three churches, St Matthew’s,
St Patrick’s, and St. Augustine’s. The old cantonment, from which
the troops have now been removed, centres aiound a parade-ground
towaids the north of the town. The business quarter adjoins the
river bank in the west. The new jail lies at the foot of the ridge
towards the noithern end of the town in the old cantonment area.
A blot on Moulmein at present is the indiscriminate way in which cooly
barracks, native hamlets {bastts)^ and lodging-houses have been allowed
to spring up m all the quarters. The bastis are composed of long
narrow houses on three sides of a square, divided into small window-
less compartments. The back-yard is common to the inmates of all
the houses, and contains a shallow well from which both bathing and
drinking water is obtained. Near it are cesspits ; goats and calves find
a hospitable refuge in the living rooms and cooking-places, and a herd
of cows is usually accommodated under a lean-to shed in the back-yard.
Reconstruction and improvements in sanitation are now, however,
being undertaken.

The population of Moulmein was 46,472 in 1872, 53,107 in 1881 ,
55,785 m 1891, and 58,446 in 1901. The last figure includes 8,544
Musalmans and 19,081 Hindus, the increase of population in the last
decade being almost entirely due to Hindu immigration from Madias.
The chief native industries pursued aie gold- and silver-woik and ivory-
carving, but Moulmein also contains 14 steam saw-mills, 3 uce-mills,
and 4 mills in which both sawing and milling are earned on, besides
a steam joinery (also dealing with rice), and a foundry.

The poll of Moulmein has an interesting history. Between the years
1830 and 1858 ship-building was earned on to a considerable extent,
ample supplies of teak being drawn from the rich forests in the sur-
rounding country. The advent of the iron ship and the steamer has
destroyed the larger branch of this industry, which is now confined to
the construction of small country craft. Of late a great obstruction to

MOULMEIN TOfFA

the piospenty of the oversea tiade of Moiilmein has been the pusence
of bais in the channel of the Salween near its mouth, but Government
has lately taken steps to keep the low'ei reaches of the ii\ei open to
steameis of deep draught by means of a pow^erful dredgei The giowth
in the trade of the port appears from the following figures. The imports
m 1 880-1 were valued at 98 lakhs, in 1890-1 at 99 lakhs, in 1 900-1 at
1*2 crores, and m 1903-4 at 1*5 crores; while the exports were valued
in 1 880-1 at I 48 crores, in 1890-1 at i 28 crores, m 1900-1 at i 88
crores, and m 1903-4 at 2 crores Of the imports, only about one-
tenth come direct from foreign (extra-Indian) ports, the greater part
being received, more or less equally, from Calcutta and Rangoon
From foreign ports the chief imports (mainly from the Straits) are betel-
nuts, sugar, and provisions of various kinds. The imports from Bengal
consist mainly of specie in payment for rice and other exports, and
those from Rangoon of re-exported foreign goods The expoits, on
the other hand, go mainly to foreign ports, this portion being valued in
1903-4 at I *35 crores, of which by far the greater part was partially
husked nee (valued at i cioie), teak and nce-bian being the next most
important commodities. About half the rice is shipped to Suez, w^here
it IS to a large extent reconsigned to European ports The exports
from Moulmein to the Stiaits for Farther Asian ports weic valued in
1903-4 at 36 lakhs, and those to England at 2 2| lakhs, while those to
Indian ports were \alued in the same yeai at 68 lakhs, of which 21
lakhs went to Calcutta, 18 to othei Burmese ports, and 24 to Bombay
The British India Steam Na\igation Company luns thiee fast steameis
a week betw^een Moulmein and Rangoon, as well as a boat between
Moulmein and the othei poits on the Tenassenm coast The inland
\vateis aie served by the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company
The port of Moulmein is in chaige of a Port Officer, belonging to the
Royal Indian Marine, and is buoyed and lighted by the Port fund,
which had an income and expenditure of 1-56 lakhs and 1*79 lakhs
respectively, in 1903-4. The Port and Customs offices are near the
mam wharf, close to the river’s edge. Up to 1874 the towm was under
the control of a town magistrate, the funds required for administration
being provided by a night-watch tax and Government contributions
and from a few local sources. In 1874 a municipal committee was
formed, and the income and expenditure during the decade ending
1901 averaged Rs 1,42,800. In 1903-4 the former amounted to 7-2
lakhs (including a loan of 3-96 lakhs). The principal sources of
revenue were house and land tax (Rs 72,600), and watei rate (Rs.
90,000). The expenditure m the same year was 6*4 lakhs The chief
heads of outlay w^ere Rs. 42,000 spent on conservancy, Rs. 43,000 on
roads, Rs. 44,000 on lighting, and Rs. 59,000 on public works. The
w'ater-supjilj, constructed at a cost of 9^ lakhs, has recently been

AfOlFAR

rompleted The watei is impounded in a leseuoir 4 miles to tlie
south of Moulmein, at the loot of the Taungwaing hills, and is
distributed through each division of the town by gravitation. It is
hoped that the provision of a supply of good drinking-water will put
a stop to the cholera epidemics that have visited Moulmein regularly
in the past. A sum of nearly 3 lakhs is to be expended on surface
drainage, of which the town is badly in need Since 1898 the town
has been lit by oil gas The gas-works are a municipal concern, the
plant being capable of generating 12,500 cubic feet of gas daily The
municipality makes no contiibution to education, but maintains a
hospital with 100 beds Other public institutions are the leper asylum
(where 29 in-patients and 23 out-patients ^vere treated in 1903), and
numerous schools. There is a bianch of the Bank of Bengal in
Moulmein, and ti^o nc^^spapels are published, one in English and one
in Burmese.

Motilmeingyun.— Township of Myaungmya District, Lower Burma,
lying between 15° 45' and t6° 34' N. and 95° and 95° 35' E., with an
area of 561 square miles. It is really a large island, bounded on the
east by the Irrawaddy and on the west by the Kyunpyatthat and
Pyamalaw livers, and cut up by numerous cieeks. The northern
portion is somewhat densely populated, but the southern is mostly
jungle-covered, though cultivation is lapidly extending The township
was constituted m 1903, out of a portion of the old Wakema township
and an aiea transferred from the former Thongwa District at the time
that the District of Pyapon was created. The population of the town-
ship as now constituted was 97,931 in 1901, distributed in 129 villages,
Moulmeingyun (population, 1,782), on one of the numerous branches
of the Irrawaddy, being the head-quarters. In 1903-4 the aiea under
cultivation was 273 square miles, paying Rs. 2,85,000 land revenue

Mount Victoria. — Highest point in the Natmadaung range in the
Pakokku Chin Hills, Burma, situated in 21® 16' N. and 93° 57' E.,
close to the eastern edge of the hills of Northern Arakan, and about
76 miles due west of the Irrawaddy, opposite the town of Pakokku,
10,400 feet above the sea. Of recent years Mount Victoria has been
found to possess possibilities as a sanitarium, the construction of
Government buildings has commenced, and in 1902 the head-quarters
of the Assistant Superintendent of the Pakokku Chin Hills were
removed from Mindat Sakan to Kanpetlet on the mount

Mowa. — Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay.

Mowar, — Town in the Katol tahsil of Nagpur District, Central
Provinces, situated in 21° 28' N. and 78° 27' E., on the Wardha river
bordering Berar, 53 miles north-west of Nagpur city. Population
(1901), 4,799. Mowar was created a municipality in 1867. The
municipal receipts duiing the decade ending 190 r averaged Rs. 3,600,

MO WAR

In 1903-4 they were Rs. 4,000, the chief soiuce of income beini)
market dues. It has a small dyeing industiy, hut with this exception
the population is solely agiicultural. The town is suirounded by
groves and gardens on all sides except towards the river. A large
weekly market is held. There is a vernacular middle school

Mozttfferpore. — District, subdivision, and town in Bengal. See
Muzaffarpur.

Mrohaung. — Township and village in Akyab District, Lowe
Burma. See Myohaung.

Mubarakpur. — Town in the Muhammadabad tahsil of Azamgaih
District, United Provinces, situated in 26° 6' N. and 83° 18' E., 8
miles north-east of Azamgarh town. Population (1901), 15,433 It is
said to have been formerly called Kasimabad, and to have fallen into
decay before it was resettled, under the name of Raji Mubarak, by an
ancestor of the present Shaikh landholders, some twelve generations
ago. Serious conflicts have occurred between the Muhammadan and
Hindu inhabitants of the town, especially in 1813, 1842, and 1904,
and special police are at present quartered here. Mubarakpur
IS administered under Act XX of 1856, with an income of about
Rs. 2,000. It contains about 1,700 looms on which cotton, silk, and
satin stuffs are woven, the town being especially noted foi the last.
There is also a small industiy in sugar-iefining. A piimary school
IS attended by 60 pupils.

Mudbidri. — Village m the Mangalore taluk of South Kanara Dis-
trict, Madras, situated m 13° 5' N and 75^^ E, 21 miles east of
Mangalore town. It was once an important Jam town, and a
descendant of the old Jain chief, known as ‘the Chouter,' still resides
here and draws a small pension. It contains eighteen Jam hastis 01
temples, one of which, the Chandranath temple, is the finest building
of the kind in the District. It has about 1,000 pillars, all of them
most beautifully and richly carved. The architecture of these basiU
IS peculiar, and Fergusson states that the nearest approach to the type
IS to be found in Nepal. By the sloping roofs of their verandas and
the exuberance of their carving, they show that then architecture is
copied from constructions in wood. Close by aie some tombs of Jam
priests, built in several storeys, but of no gieal size and now much
decayed. There is also an old stone bridge, which is interesting as
showing the ancient Hindu methods of constiucting such woiks.

Muddebihal Taluka, — Eastern taluka of Bijapur District, Bombay,
lying between 16° 10^ and 16° 37' N. and 75° 58' and 76° 25' E , with
an area of 569 square miles. It contains one town, Talikot (popula-
tion, 6,610), and 150 villages, mcludmg Muddebihal (6,235), the
head-quarters. The population in 1901 was 69,842, compared with
8r,572 in 1891. The density, 123 persons per square mile, is

MUDGERE

slightly below the District a\eiage. The demand foi land revenue in
1903-4 was I 53 lakhs, and foi cesses Rs* 13,000 In the nortUof the
tdluka is the rich valley of the Don The central plateau of sani^s^oi;je
and limestone is fairly feitile The south and south-east is a barffetii**’
tiact of metamorphic granite, feitile only close to the Kistna, The
annual rainfall averages about 27 inches.

Muddebihal Village. — Village in the tdluka of the same name in
bijapui District, Bombay, situated in 16° 20' N. and 76° 8' E., about
18 miles fiom Almiatti station on the Southern Mahratta Railway
Population (1901), 6,235 The village comprises the site of Parvatgiri
to the east and of Muddebihal to the west, sepaiated by a large dram
running north and south. It was founded about 1680 by Parmanna, an
ancestoi of the present Nadgaunda ot Basarkot, and the fort was built
by his son Huchappa about 1720 About 1764 it came under the
Peshwas, and it was included in British territory in t8i8 The village
contains a Subordinate Judge’s couit, a dispensary, two boys' schools
with 329 pupils, and a girls' school with 56.

Mudgal. — Head-quarters of the Lingsugur taluk^ Raichur District,
Hydeiabad State, situated in 16® i' N. and 76^ 26' E. Population
(1901), 7,729, of whom 4,753 are Hindus, 2,593 Musalmans, and 380
Christians The fort was the seat of the Yadava governors of Deogiri
ni 1250. It came successively into the possession of the Rajas of
Warangal, the Bahmani and the Bijapur Sultans, and lastly it fell to
Aiirangzeb. I’here is a small Roman Catholic colony in the town,
whose ancestois were originally converted by one of St. Francis
Xaviei’s missionaiies from Goa. The church was built at an early date
and contains a picture of the Madonna Mudgal has two schools, one
of which is suppoited by the mission, a post office, and an Ai^hm-
khdna^ wheie the Muhaiiam ceiemony is held with gieat eclat in the
piesence of thousands of pilgrims

Mudgere. — Southern taluk of Kadui District, Mysore, lying between
12° 55' and 13° 19' N. and 75° 10' and 75° 45' E., with an aiea of
435 squaie miles. The population m 1901 was 46,212, compared with
45,521 in 1891 "J'he taluk contains one towm, Mudgere (population,
Ij 675), head-(iuarteis , and 137 villages. The land revenue demand
in X903-4 was Rs 1,23,000 Till 1876 Mudgeie formed pait of
Manjarabad. Like that taluk, it lies in the Malnad, and is highly
picturesque. The AVestern Ghats bound it on the west, towering up
to the great peak of Kudremukh (6,215 The Bhadra flows

across the north, and the Hemavati through the south. The summits
of the mountains are bare, but the hanging woods on their sides impart
great beauty to the landscape. The annual rainfall averages 103 inches.
The chief products are coffee, areca-nuts, cardamoms, rice, and a little
sugar-cane. The rice crop mainly depends on springs in the hills from

VOL XVIII, IJ '

MUDGERE

I 2

which watei courses aie led. Many of the coffee estates are under
European managementj the labourer s being Tulus from South Kanaia
The Bund (or coffee) ghat road runs fiom Mudgere west, down to
Mangalore on the coast.

Mudhol State. — State under the Political Agent of Kolhapur and
the Southern Maratha Country, Bombay, lying between i6° 7' and
16° 27^ N. and 75° a! and 75° 32' E., with an area of 368 square
miles It IS bounded on the north by Jamkhandi State; on the east
by the Bagalkot tdluka\ on the south by Belgaum and Bijapur Dis-
tricts and the Kolhapur State , and on the west by the Gokak tdluka
of Belgaum District. The population in 1901 was 63,001, Hindus
numbering 57,896, Muhammadans 4,826, and Jains 277. The State
contains 3 towns, including Mudhol (population, 8,359), the resi-
dence of the chief ; and 81 villages. The general aspect of the country
IS flat, with slight undulations. The scenery is monotonous, and,
except during the rainy season, piesents a parched and barren aspect.
Theie are no mountains, the small hill ranges not being more
than 150 feet high. The greater portion of the soil is black, the
lemainder being the inferior description of red and stony land known
as mdL The only livei passing through the State is the Ghatprabha,
which is navigable during the monsoon by boats of less than a ton
burden ; but it is never used as a means of communication foi
travelling or trade. It waters in its course about half the villages of
the State, and irrigates by its annual floods a considerable area.
Iirigation is also effected by damming up small rivulets, and turning
off the water in the diiection required; by drawing water fiora wells
and pools by means of leathern bags ; and wheie the elevation of the
bed of a reservoir is sufficient, by leading channels into the neigh-
bouring fields. As m othei parts of the Deccan, the climate is veiy
dry, the heat fiom March to ]Ma> being oppressive. The staple ciops
arc jowdr, wheat, gram, and cotton. Cotton cloth and articles of
female apparel are the chief manufactuics

The chief of Mudhol belongs to the Bhonsla family of the Maiatha
caste 01 clan, descended, according to tradition, from a common
ancestor with Sivaji the Great. This name, however, has been entirely
superseded b> the second designation of Ghorpade, which is said to
have been acquired by one of the family who managed to scale a foit,
previously deemed impregnable, by fastening a cord aiound the body
of a ghorpad or iguana. All that is authentically known of the history
of the family is that it held a high position at the court of Bijapui,
from which it received the lands it still holds. The Mudhol chiefs
were the most determined opponents of Sivaji during his eaily con-
quests , but on the overthrow of the Muhammadan powei they joined
the Marathas, and accepted a military command from the Peshw^a.

MUDKl

The great-grandfather of the present rulei (who died in 1856) was
the first who became a feudatory of the Biitish Government.

The chief administers his estate m person. He enjoys an esti-
mated levenue of moie than 3 lakhs, and pays a tribute of Rs. 2,672
to the British Government He officially ranks as a first-class Sardar
in the Southern Maratha Country. There are two civil courts in the
State. An appeal lies to the chief, who has power to tiy his ow^n
subjects foi capital offences. The family of the chief holds a title
authoiizing adoption, and follows the rule of primogeniture in matters
of succession. There are 24 schools with 1,123 pupils ; and three muni-
cipalities, with an income in 1903-4 of Rs 6,400. The police force
numbered 104 in the same year, and the one jail in the State contained
a daily average of 17 piisoners. In 1903-4 the State maintained three
dispensaiies which afforded relief to 26,000 persons, and 1,300 persons
were vaccinated.

Mudhol Town (i). — Chief town of the State of Mudhol, Bombay,
situated in 16° 20' N and 75® 19' E., on the left bank of the Ghat-
piabha, about 12 miles south of Jamkhandi. Population (1901), 8,359.
It is administeied as a municipality, with an income in 1903-4 of
Rs. 2,700. The town contains a dispensary.

Mudhol Taluk. — Taluk in Nander District, Hyderabad State, with
an area of 335 square miles. In 1901 the population, including
was 57,024, compared with 64,124 in 1891, the deciease being due to
the famine of 1900. Till recently it had 115 villages, of which 25 are
]d^r^ and one town, Mudhol (population, 6,040), the head-quaiters.
The land revenue in 1901 was 1*7 lakhs Up to 1905 the taluk
formed part of Indur (Nizamabad) District , and on its transfei to
Nander District it was enlarged by the addition of the Bhaisa taluk
and part of Nander. The soil is mostly black cotton.

Mudhol Town (2) — Head-quarters of the taluk of the same name
in Nander District, Hydeiabad State, situated in 18° 59' N and 77°
55' E., 28 miles north-west-by-north of Nizamabad. Population
(1901), 6,040. Besides the tahsil office, the town contains a post office,
a police inspector’s office, and a school with 120 pupils.

Mudki. — Town in the District and tahsU of Ferozepore, Punjab,
situated in 30° 47' N. and 74® 55' E., on the road between Feiozepore
and Ludhiana. Population (1901), 2,977. It is memorable for the
battle which inaugurated the first Sikh War, fought on December 18,
1845, on the plain 26 miles south of the Sutlej. Two days before this
battle, the Sikhs had crossed the boundary iiver at Ferozepore. They
w’ere met by a much smaller British force at Mudki, and driven from
their position, with the loss of 17 guns, after a hard contest, in which
the British lost a large proportion of officers. Monuments have been
erected on the battle-field in honour of those who fell

14 MUDON

Mud on. — Sea-boaid tovvni‘:)hip of Amherst Distiict, Lovvei Burma
(formerly known as Zaya), sti etching do\Mi the coast opposite the
island of Bilugyun, fiom the Taungnyo hills to the sea, between 15^ 58'
and 16'' 27' N. and 36' and 97° 55' E., with an aiea of 236 square
miles. It IS flat, feitile, and thickly populated. The population, which

15 largely Taking, increased from 40,761 in 1891 to 52,746 in 1901,
distributed m 106 villages, Mudon (population, 2,358), a village on the
ISIoulmein-Amheist road, 9 miles south of Moulmein, being the head-
quaiteis The aiea cultisated in 1903-4 was 144 square miles, paying
Rs 2,12,600 land revenue

Mudukulattur. — Zaminddn talml in the Raninad subdivision and
estate, Maduia District, Madras. It is named after its head-quarters,
where a (]j^^M\.^-talistlddr and sub-mag isti ate is stationed The popula-
tion m 1901 was 146,255, compared with 135,182 m 1891. It contains
two towms, Aiuramam (population, 7,338) and Kamudi (6,854), and
399 villages The taJml possesses the same desolate and uninviting
appearance as the rest of the Ramnad estate. It is laigely black
cotton soil, and during the rains, owing to the absence of loads, the
country becomes neaily impassable.

Muhamdi Tahsil. — South-western iaJisll of Kheri District, United
Provinces, comprising the parganas of Muhamdi, Pasgawan, Atw^a
Piparia, Aurangabad, Magdapur, Haidarabad, and Kasta (Abgawan),
and lying betw’een 27° 41' and 28® 10' N. and 80° 2' and 80® 39' E.,
with an aiea of 651 square miles Population fell from 258,617 in 1891
to 257,989 in 1901, this being the only ialisil in the District where
a deciease took place. There are 607 villages and one town,
]\IuHAMDi (population, 6,278), the tahsil head-quarters. The demand
foi land revenue in 1903-4 w'as Rs. 296,000, and for cesses Rs. 49,000.
The density of population, 396 persons per square mile, is the highest
in the District. The tahil is bounded on the west by the Sukheta,
and IS also diained by the Gumti, Kathna, and Saiayan. A great pait
is composed of fertile loam, but the large aiea between the Kathna
and Gumti, called the Parehar, is a diy sandy tract where irrigation
is generally impossible. In 1903-4 the area undei cultivation was
406 square miles, of w^hich 99 were irrigated. Wells supply moie
than tw^o-thirds of the irrigated area, and tanks oi j/ii/s most of the
lemainder

Muhamdi Town. — Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name in
Kheri District, United Provmces, situated in 27° 58' N and 80° 14' E.,
near the Gumti. Population (1901), 6,278. The towm became of
some importance durmg the seventeenth century, when it was held by
Muktadi Khan, a descendant of Sadr Jahan, the great noble of Akbar’s
court. He built a large buck fort, the rums of which still remain.
Eail> m the eighteenth centuiv the celebrated Hakim Mahdi Ali

M[//YA VAf. / DAB A D T. \ TlSTf

Khan, aftei wards minisUn to the kinj^s of Oiulh, resided heie ^^hlle
ffoveinoi of IVruhamdr and Kluiiirihrid, and made se\eial impiovcments.
At annexation m r856 Muhamdi was selected as the head-quaiters
of a District, but after tlic Mutiny Lakhimpui became the capital.
Besides the usual offices, there are a branch of the American Methodist
]\hssion and a dispensaiy. The town was administeied as a muni-
cipality from 1879 to 1904, when it was declared to be a ‘notified
area.’ During the ten yeais ending 1901 the income and expenditure
averaged Rs. 2,800. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 7,000, including
a grant of Rs. 3,500 from Provincial revenues , and the expenditure
was Rs. 6,500. Though Muhamdi is of less impoitance than formeily,
a considerable trade is still carried on, and the town contains six sugar
lefineries. There is a school with 140 pupils.

Muhammadabad Tahsil (i). — South-eastern iahsil of x\zamgarh
District, United Piovinces, comprising the parganas of Kaiyat Mittu,
Chiiiakot, Maunath Bhanjan or Mau, and Muhammadabad, and lying
between 25° 48^ and 26° 8' N and 83° ii"' and 83® 40' E., with an aiea
of 427 square miles This aiea was leduccd by 71 miles in 1904,
portions being tiansfeired to the new Ghos! tahsiL Population fell
fiom 359,746 in 1891 to 306,870 in 1901, and allowing for the recent
change is now^ 251,796 There are 971 villages and three towns Mau
(population, 17,696), Mutiarakpur (15,433), and Muhammadabad
(8,775), the taliAl head-quarteis. The demand foi land revenue in
1903-4 was Rs 3,63,000, and for cesses Rs, 59,000, but after the
transfer these figures became Rs 3,02,000 and Rs. 49,000 The
density of population of the leconstituted tahsil is 707 persons pei
square mile, or almost exactly the District average. The tahsil is inter-
sected by several small streams and a number of s^vamps and marshes,
and lies south of the Chhoti vSarju and its tributary, the Tons. In
1 900-1, 238 square miles of the old aiea were undei cultivation, of
which 146 were irrigated. Wells supply rathei more than half the
irrigated area, and tanks or swamps and small rivers the remainder in
equal proportions.

Muhammadabad Town (i), — Head-quarters of the tahsil of the
same name in Azamgarh District, United Provinces, situated in 26°
2' N. and 83® 24' E , on the Tons and on the Bengal and North-Western
Railway. Population (1901), 8,775 appeals to be of some

antiquity, and was held by Muhammadans fiom the early part of the
fifteenth century. It contains a dispensary, a tahslli, a munsift^ and
a police station. It is administeied undei Xct XX of 1856, with an
income of about Rs 1,400. There are about 300 looms and a few
sugar lefineries. Two schools have 100 pupils.

Muhammadabad Tahsil (2). — Eastern tahsil of Ghazipur Distzict,
United Piovinces, comprising the pafgaiias of Zahiiiabad, ^Jiihammad

Tfi Anr/fAAfAfADAJ^An TAHSlL

abad, and Dehma, and lying noUh of the Ganges, between 25® 31' and
25° 54" N. and 83° 36' and 83° 58' E., with an aiea of 320 square
miles Population fell from 251,823 in 1891 to 226,760 in 1901.
Theie are 694 villages and two towns, including Muhammadabad (popu-
lation, 7,270), the tahst/ head-quaiteis. The demand for land revenue
in 1903-4 was Rs 2,41,000, and foi cesses Rs 45 jOoo* The density
of population, 709 persons pei square mile, is the highest in the
District. Thiough the centie of the taksil flows the Mangai, and
the Chhoti Sarju crosses the noith. Rice and sugai-cane are largely
grown in the northern portion, where jklls and tanks abound, while
spring crops are the staple in the south, which includes a large area
of alluvial soil and forms one of the most feitile tiacts in the Distiict.
The area under cultivation in 1903-4 was 234 square miles, of which
82 were iriigated Wells suppl) about eight-ninths of the iriigated
area, and tanks most of the remaindei.

Muhammadabad Town (2). — Head-quarters of the taAslI of the
same name in Ghazipur District, United Provinces, situated in 25°
37' N. and 83° 47' E,, on the Bengal and North-Western Railway and
close to the road from Ghazlpui town to Buxai. Population (1901),
7,270. The town is administered undei Act XX of 1856, with an
income of about Rs. 1,500. It contains one tolerably straight thorough-
fare, lined with well-built shops and houses, and wears a neat and clean
appearance. A weekly bazar is held, and a flourishing export trade
in giain is springing up Besides the ordinary public offices, there are
a dispensary, a munsifi^ and two schools with 184 pupils

Muhammadgarh. — Mediatized State in Central India, under the
Bhopal Agency, situated on the Malwa plateau, with an area of about
29 square miles, and a population (1901) of 2,944. The State was
originally included in Basoda and Korwai. In 1753 Ahsan-ullah Khan,
the Nawab of Basoda, divided his State between his two sons,
Baka-ullah and Muhammad Khan, the latter founding the town and
State of Muhammadgarh. The present chief is Hatim Kull Khan, who
succeeded in 1896, and bears the title of Nawab. The State contains
14 villages, and produces good ciops of all the ordinal y grains and
of poppy. About 8 square miles, 01 27 per cent, of the total area,
are cultivated, of which 51 acres are irrigated. The chief exercises the
criminal powers of a first-class magistrate, all serious crimes being dealt
with by the Political Agent The levenue amounts to Rs 7,000. The
town of Muhammadgarh is situated in 23^^ 39' N. and 78® 10' E , and
has a population (1901) of 856 It is reached from the BhTlsa station
of the Midland section of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, 29
miles distant, by a fair-weather load.

Muhammad Khan’s Tando.— Head-quarters of the Gum tdluka
of Hydeiabad District, Sind, Bombay. See Tando Muhammad Khan

MUKERIAX

Muhammadot. — An estate in Feiozepore District, Punjab. See
Mamdot.

Muhammadpur. — Village in the M^ura subdivision of Jessoie
Distiict, Bengal, situated in 23° 24' N and 89° 37' E., on the right
bank of the Madhuinatl Population (1901), 44. Muhammadpur was
formerly a large town , and a quadiangulai fort, many fine tombs, and
other remains bear testimony to its ancient greatness. The place is
now very unhealthy, and it was in its neighbourhood that the virulent
epidemic known as 'Burdwan fever* was first noticed about 1840.

Muhpa. — Towni in Nagpui District, Central Provinces See Mohpa.

Mukama. — Town in Patna District, Bengal. See Mokameh.

Mukandwara (01 Mukandaia).— Village in the Chechat tahsll of
the Slate of Kotah, Rajputana, situated m 24® 49' N and 76° E., in
the hills of the same name, about 32 miles south-by-south-east of Kotah
city and about 80 noith-east of Nimach. I'he lange is heie pieiced by
a pass, about 1,500 feet above the sea, which is of gieat impoitance as
being the only defile piacticable foi wheeled traffic for a considei-
able distance between the Chambal and Kali Sindh rivers. This pass
IS called Mukandwara, ‘the gate or poital of Mukand,’ after Mukand
Singh, who was the second chief of Kotah, and built the gates of the
defile as well as a palace to his favourite mistress, Abli Mini, on
the slope of the hill. The pass has been the scene of many obstinately
contested battles between the Khlchi and the Haia Rajputs, and is
famous as the route of Colonel Monson’s retreat befoie Jaswant Rao
Holkar in July, 1804 Some distance up the valley are the fragments
of the cliaori or hall of Bhim. Fergusson thought the building might
be as old as a.d. 450, 01 even older, but only the columnai part of the
mandap 01 portico lemained and no insciiption could be found The
lintels and consoles are elaboiately caived all o\er ivith stiange
animal forms and floral sciolls ; and the pillars, though scaicely ten
feet in height, look larger and noblei than many of twice theii
dimensions

[J. Tod, Rajasthan^ vol 11 , J. Fergusson, Picturesqve lUustraiions
of Ancie/if ArchitecUne and History of Indian a7id Eastern Architecture \
also, Archaeological Sun^ey of A^ort hern hidia^ vol. xxiii.]

Mukerian. — Town in the Dasuya iahsil of Hoshiarpur District,
Punjab, situated in 31° 57' N and 75® 38' E. Population (1901),
3,589 It was a stronghold of Saidar Jai Singh Kanhaya, whose power
was paramount in the Punjab about 1774-84, and Ranjit Singh’s
reputed son, Sher Singh, who afterwards became Mahaiaja, was born
here. The town has no trade of any importance. The municipality
was created m 1867. The income and expenditure during the ten
years ending 1902-3 aveiaged Rs 3,100 In 1903-4 the income w^as
Rs. 3,200, chiefly derived fiom octroi , and the expendituie was

IS mukertAn

Rs 2,900 It maiiitams a \t-inacuUi middle school and a rio\ein-
ment dispensai).

Mukhalingam. — Village in the Pailakimedi taksll of Ganjam Dis-
tnct, Madras, situated in 18° 35' N and 38° 59' E., on the left bank
of the A^amsadhara, 18 miles from Parlakimedi It is famous for its
Siva temple, which is held in gieat veneiation, and is maintained by
the Raja of Parlakimedi. A leligious festival and fan is held annuall)
on the Sivaiatn, when thousands of pilgrims visit it. This and two
other temples in the same village are excellent examples of the Onssan
or Indo-Aiyan style of architects e, which differs widely from the
Dravidian style of the southern Distiicts , and the sculpture on them is
remarkable for its elegance and precision. One of them was built in
the beginning of the ninth century, and the inscriptions show that
Mukhalingam was formeily inhabited by Buddhists, and that it, and
not Cahngapatam or Chicacole, as was once supposed, was the site of
the capital of the old Ganga kings of Kalinga

Mukher. — Head-quarteis of the Kandahai taluk^ Nandei Dis-
trict, Hydeiabad State, situated in 18° 42' N. and 77° 22' E Popula-
tion (1901), 6,148 It is a centie of the cotton trade and contains
a gimiing factor}, while brass and copper vessels are largely manu-
factured. Besides the tahsil office, it contains a Munsifs couit, a
police inspector’s office, a dispensary, a post office, a school, and an old
Hindu temple.

Muktagacha. — Town in the head-quarters subdivision of Mymen-
singh Distiict, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 24° 46' N. and
90° 15' E., on the road from Naslrabad to Subarnakhah. Population
(1901), 5,888 Though the town was constituted a municipality in
1875, the population is poor and ruial. The income during the decade
ending 1901-2 averaged Rs 6,500, and the expendituie Rs 6,000.
In 1903-4 the income was Rs 8,000, of which Rs. 4,500 was obtained
from a property tax , and the expendituie w'as Rs. 7,000.

Muktesar. — Tahsil and towm in Eerozepore District, Punjab.
See Muktsar

Mukteswar (Motesar), — Village in Nainl Tal District, United Pro-
vinces, situated m 29° 28' N. and 79° 39' E , on the Himalayas, at an
elevation of 7,500 to 7,700 feet. Up to 1893 the village w^as dis-
tinguished only by its shiines and a small temple. It was then selected
as the site of a laboratory foi the manufacture of serum to protect
cattle against rinderpest. The laboratory w^as completed in 1898, but
was burnt dowm in 1899 rebuilt by 1901. It stands in an enclosure
of about 3,000 acres, part of which is occupied by oak and pine forest ,
a fruit garden started many years ago has also been included, and a
meteoiological observatoiy is maintained. In addition to the supply
of serum for use in epidemics of rinderpest, a seium for anthrax, and

also mallum, tubcu ulin, and tetanus anti-toxin aie piepai ed Resean hcs
aie being Londucled in the etiology ot diseases affecting animals, such
as rindeipest, antlnax, surra, lymphangitis epizootica, and glandeis ,
and District boaid \etermary assistants from the United Pro\inces and
the Punjab are mstiucted in the use of various kinds of sera The
annual expendituie is about Rs 50,000

Muktsar Tahsll — 7 a//^z/of Feiozepore District, Punjab,

l>mg between 30° 9' and 30° 54' N and 74^4^ and 74° 52' E., with an
area of 935 squaie miles. It is bounded on the north-west by the
Sutlej, which divides it from Montgomery and Lahore Districts , on the
east by Faridkot ; and on the south-east by Patiala, On the west is
a belt of alluvial land along the left bank of the Sutlej, irrigated by the
Grey Canals. The middle poition of the iahsil is, a le\el plain with
a firm soil, while north and south the countiy is sandy. The central
and southern portions aie litigated by the Siihind Canal. The popu-
lation in 1901 was 172,445, compared with 161,492 in 1891. The
head-quarters aie at the town of Muktsar (population, 6,389) The
taJisil also contains 320 villages The land re\enue and cesses
in 1903-4 amounted to 2-7 lakhs.

Muktsar Town {M?(ktesar) — Head-quarters of the tahsU of the
same name in Ferozepore District, Punjab, situated in 30° 28' N and
74° 31^ E., on the Fazilka extension of the Rajputana-!Malwa Railway
Population (1901), 6,389 Muktsai is the largest town and principal
trade mart m the west of Feiozepore District Apait from its commer-
cial importance, the town is chiefly noticeable for a great Sikh festival,
which takes place in January. It lasts for thiee days, and commemo-
lates a battle fought in 1705-6 by Guru Govind Smgh against the
pursuing imperial forces. Theie is a large tank in which pilgrims
bathe, begun by the Mahaiaja Ranjit Singh, and continued and com-
pleted by the chiefs of Patiala, Jind, Nabha, and Faridkot. The
municipality was created in 1867. The income during the ten years
ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 6,100, and the expenditure Rs. 4,900. In
1903-4 income was Rs 6,800, chiefly from octroi , and the expen-
diture was Rs. 6,200. There is a Government dispensary

Mukurti. — Peak in the Nilgiri District, Madras. See Makurti.

Mula. — River in Baluchistan, rising m the Harboi hills and having
a total length of 180 miles. As far as Kotra in Kachhi (28° 22' N ,
67° 20' E ), It passes wnth a rapid fall through the Central Brahui range ,
in its low’er reaches many flats he along its course The upper course
is knowm as the Soinda , a little lower it is called the Mishkbel, and
from Pashthakh^ downwards it becomes the Mula. Its principal
affluents aie the Malghaw^e, the Anjira or Pissibel, and the Ledav. The
Mula diains the whole of the north-east of the Jhalawan country and
also the south-west coinei of Kachhx Wheiexez possible, the small

Mi/ZA

perennial supply of water is drawn off to irrigate the flats along the
course of the river, while flood- water is utilized for cultivation in
Kachhi. The Mula Pass route to the Jhalawan country lies along its
course.

Mulbagal Taluk. — Eastern taluk of Kolai District, Mysore, lying
between 13° and 13° 22' N. and 78° 14' and 2 ^^' E., with an area
of 327 square miles The population in 1901 was 66,899, compared
with 56,269 in 1891. The taluk contains one town, Mulbagal (popu-
lation, 6,562), the head-quarters, and 351 villages. The land revenue
demand in 1903-4 w’-as Rs 1,60,000. The Palar river -runs along the
southern half of the west border, and the streams flow to this belo^^
the Ghats A range of hills runs north fiom Mulbagal, and over the
tahik geneially gneissic rocks and boulders crop up eveiywheie The
west IS open rolling countiy, the east bioken and steep Tanks and
wells are numerous, with water close to the suiface The 'diy-crop’
soil is pool, grey, and sandy. The Svet’ lands contain much sand
and clay, often with eflloi escences of potash The best cultivation is
towards the north-east.

Mulbagal Town. — Head-quarteis of the taluk of the same name in
Kolar District, Mysore, situated m 13° 10' N and 78° 24' E , 18 miles
east of Kolar town. Population (1901), 6,562 The name, oiigmally
Muluvayi, is Mulu-bagal, in Sanskrit Kantakadvaia, ‘thoin-gate’
There is a Sripadaraya math of the Madhva sect here, and the tomb
of a saint named Haidar Wall attracts many Musalmans to the celebra-
tion of his anniversaiy. Pilgiims to Tirupati fiom the west shave their
heads and bathe in the Narasimha-tlrtha as a preliminaiy purification.
Mulbagal sugar and Mulbagal rice are considered the best in the
District. The former is prepaied by Muhammadans employed by
Brahmans. Under Vijayanagar lule the town was at fust the seat of
government for the Kolar territory, and afterwards belonged to the
Sugatur family. It was taken by the British in 1768 and 1791, but
restored to Mysore at the peace of 1792 The municipality dates from
1870. The receipts and expenditure during the ten years ending 1901
averaged Rs 3,100. In 1903-4 they were Rs. 4,000 and Rs. 3,600

Mulgund. — Town in the Gadag idluka of Dharwar District, Bombay,
situated in 15° 16^ N. and 75® 31' E, 12 miles south-west of Gadag
towm. Population (1901), 7,523. Till 1848, when thioiigh failure of
heirs it lapsed to the British Government, Mulgund belonged to the
chief of Ta.sgaon. There are five Brahmanic and four Jam temples in
the town It contains four schools, including one for guls.

Muli State. — State m the Kathiawar Political Agency, Bombay,
lying between 22° 38' and 22® 46'' N. and 71® 25' and 71® 38' E., with
an area of 133 square miles The population in 1901 was 15,136,
residing in 20 Milages The revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 79,773, and

MULTAN DIVISION

25 square miles were cultivated The State ranks as a fourth-class
State in Kathiawar, and is the only Ponwar chiefship. The Ponwaib
entered the peninsula about 1470-5 from Thar and Parkar, under the
leadership of Laghhdirjl, and established themselves at Than and
Chotila They founded the present town of Muli, named after
a Raban woman.- After three generations the Kathis crossed over
to Than, and shortly aftei expelled the Ponwars from Chotila. Since
then the Kathis have held Chotila, and the Ponwars’ holding has been
limited to Mull and the adjacent villages.

Muli Town. — Chief town of the State of the same name in Kathi-
awar, Bombay, situated in 22° 38' N. and 71° 30' E , 13 miles south-
west of Wadhwan on the Bhogava Population (1901), 5,455. It is
famous foi its saddle-cloths Muli contains a temple of the Swami
Narayan sect, founded by the Ponwars and named after a Raban
woman. There is also a temple of the Sun, which is worshipped
here under the name of Mandav Rai

Mulila Deri. — Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay.

Mulji-na-pura. — Petty State m MahI Kantha, Bombay.

Multai. — Eastern tahsll of Betul District, Central Provinces, lying
between 21° 25' and 22° 23' N. and 77® 57' and 78° 34' E, with an
area of 1,056 square miles The population in 1901 was 114,369, com-
pared with 128,477 1891- The density is 108 persons per square

mile. The tahsil contains 417 inhabited villages Its head-quarters
are at Multai, a village of 3,505 inhabitants, 28 miles from Badnur on
the Nagpur road and 87 miles from Nagpur. The village stands on an
elevated plateau 2,600 feet high, and contains a sacred tank which is
consideied to be the source of the river Tapti The real source of the
river is, however, two miles distant Excluding 364 square miles of
Government forest, 75 per cent, of the available area is occupied for
cultivation. The cultivated area in 1903-4 was 557 square miles-
The demand for land levenue in the same year was Rs. 1,16,000, and
for cesses Rs. 13,000. The tahsll consists mainly of poor rolling
upland, with rich patches of fertile soil in the valleys, and is bordeied
by rugged hills to the north and south

Multan Division. — South-western Division of the Punjab, form-
ing a w'edge between the North-West Frontier Province and the
State of Bahawalpur. It lies between 28^^ 25' and 33° 13' N. and
69® 19' and 73® 39' E. The Sutlej divides it from Bahawalpur on
the south-east, while the Indus flows partly through the Division and
partly along its border to the west. The head-quarteis of the Com-
missioner are at Multan or, in the hot season, at Fort Munro. The
Division was abolished in 1884, but reconstituted in 1901. In 1881
the population of the area now included was 2,036,956, in 1891 it
had risen ‘to 2,277,605, and in 1901 to 3,014,675. The total area is

MULT AX DIVISIOX

29,520 square miles, and the density’ of the population was the Icniest
in the Piovince, 102 peisons pei squaie mile, (‘ompaied with the
Ihovincial average of 209. The Multan Division is consideiably largei
in area, but its population is considerably less than that of any other
Division m the Punjab. In 1901 Muhammadans numbered 2,391,281,
or 79 per cent, of the total, Hindus, 536,052 , Sikhs, 79,269 , Jains,
334 ; and Christians, 7,686.

The Division includes five Districts, as shown below —

District

Area in square ,
miles 1

1 '

Population,

iqoi

Land revenue
j and cesses,
1903-4,

1 m thousands

1 of rupees

1 Mianwali

1 7»8i6

424,588

5.67

1 Jhang

. . 6,652 1

1,002,656

1 * 7.13

Mnltan .

1 6,107

710,626

17.SJ

‘ Muzaffargarh .

1 S.635

405,656

8,46

, Dera Ghazi Khan

1 .s,So 6

, 6,41

1 —

Total 1 29,516

’,,014,675

1 65,18

III 1904 paiL of Jhang District wa^ sepaiated, to lorm the new Distnrt ot
1^1 \r r PUR

The Division contains 5,085 villages and 23 towns, the laigest being
Muitan (population, 87,394), Jhang-Maghiana (24,382), and Derv
Ghazi Khan (23,731) The whole area is fiat, excepting a spur ot
the Salt Range which luns into Mianwali, and the Sulaiman range
which divides Dera Ghazi Khan from the trans-frontiei Baloch tribes.
A great part of the Division is desert, but the Chenab Canal is rapidly
changing the face of Jhang. Multan is the only place of first-rate
commercial importance, though Dera Ghazi Khan is a collecting mart
for trans-Indus products, and Lyallpur is rapidly becoming a centre
of trade. The historical importance of Multan and Mankera is
considerable Fort Munro in the Sulaiman lange (6,300 feet) and
Sakesar m the Salt Range (5,010 feet) aie minor sanitaria.

Multan District* — District in the Multan Division of the Punjab,
lying between 29° 22' and 30° 45' N. and 71° 2' and 72° 52' E., with
an area of 6,107 square miles It consists of an obtuse wedge of land,
enclosed by the confluent streams of the Chenab and the Sutlej, which
unite at its south-western extremity. The irregular triangle thus
cut off lies wholly within the Ban Doab , but the District boundaries
have been artificially prolonged across the Ravi in the noith, so as
to include a small portion of the Rechna Doab. It is bounded on
the east by Montgomery and on the north by Jhang ; while beyond the
Chenab on the west lies Muzaffargarh, and beyond the Sutlej on the
south the State of Bahawalpiir. The past or piesent couises of foui
of the great uveis ot the Punjab determine the confoimation of the

MULTAX DISTRICT

Multan plain At piesent the Sutlej foims itb ‘iouthern and the
Chenab its north-western boundaiy, while the Ravi intersects its extiemc
northern angle. Along the banks of these three
streams extend fringes of alluvial meiain, flooded in a^ects^
the summer months, and rising into a low plateau
wateied by the inundation canals Midway between the boundary
livers, a high doisal iidge enters the Distiict from Montgomer\,
foiming a part of the steiile region known as the Bar It dips into
the lower plateau on either side by abrupt banks, which maik the
ancient beds of the RaM and Beas. These two iiveis once flowed foi
a much gi eater distance southward before joining the Chenab and the
Sutlej than is now the case; and their oiiginal courses may still be
distinctly tiaced, not only by the signs of former fluMal action, but also
b} the existence of diied-up canals. The Ra\i still dings to its ancient
w^atercourse, as observed by General Cunningham, and in seasons of
high flood finds its way as far as Multan by the abandoned bed
During the winter months, howevei, it lies almost dry. It is chiefly
Intel esting for the extraordinary reach know^n as the Sidhnai, a cutting
which extends in a perfectly straight line for lo or 12 miles, as to
whose origin nothing can be said with certainty. The Chenab
and Sutlej, on the other hand, are imposing nveis, the formei never
fordable except in exceptionally diy winters, the latter only at a few
places. Near their confluence the land is legulail) flooded during the
sunimei months

'The District contains nothing of geological mteiest, as the soil is
entirely alluvial. 'Fhe flora combines species characteristic of the
Western Punjab, the transTndus countr}, Sind, and Rajputana, but
has been much changed, since Edgew'orth’s Florida Mallica w^as
written, by extension of canal-iiugation. The date-palm is laigely
cultuated, and dates are exported. A \aiiety of mango is also

giown, with a smaller and more acid fruit than the sorts reaied in

Hindustan and the submontane Punjab

Wolves are not uncommon, while jackals and foxes are numerous.
"I'he antelope most frequently met with is the ‘ravine deei ’ (Indian
gazelle), but nilgai are also seen.

The heat and dust of Multan arc pioveibial, but on the whole
the climate is not so bad as it is sometimes painted, and, as else-
where in the Punjab, the cold season is delightful. The hot season

IS long , and, during the months in which high temperatures are

recorded, Multan is only one or two degrees below' Jacobabad.
Though elsewhere the mean temperature may be higher, there is no
place in India, except Jacobabad, where the thermometer remains
high so consistently as at Multan The nights, however, are com-
pauitively cool in May, the difference between the maximum and

MULTAN DISTRICT

minimum temperatures sometimes exceeding 40° The general dry-
ness of the climate makes the District healthy on the whole, though
the tracts liable to flood are malarious. The rainfall is scanty m the
extreme, the average varying from 4 inches at Mailsi to 7 at Multan.
The greatest fall recorded during the twenty years ending 1903 was
19-9 inches at Multan in 1892-3, and the least 1*3 inches at Lodhran
in 1887-8. Severe floods occurred in 1893-4 and 1905.

The history of Multan is unintelligible without some reference to
its physical history, as affected by the changes in course of the great
rivers h Up to the end of the fourteenth century the
IS ory. seems to have flowed by Multan, entering the

Chenab to the south of the city. The Beas flowed through the middle
of the Distiict, falling into the Chenab, a course it appears to have held
until the end of the eighteenth century, wMe possibly as late as 1245
the Chenab flowed to the east of Multan. It has also been held that
in eaily times the Sutlej flow^ed in the present dry bed of the Hakra,
some 40 miles south of its present course. When the District was thus
intersected by four mighty rivers, the v\hole wedge of land, except the
dorsal ridge of the Bar, could obtain irrigation from one or other of
their streams. Numerous villages then dotted its w^hole surface ; and
A 1 Masudi, in the tenth century, describes Multan, with Oriental
exaggeration, as surrounded by 120,000 hamlets.

In the earliest times the city now known as Multan probably bore
the name of Kasyapapura, derived from Kasyapa, father of the Adityas
and Daityas, the sumgods and Titans of Hindu mythology. Under the
various Hellenic forms of this ancient designation, Multan figures in
the works of Hecataeus, Herodotus, and Ptolemy. General Cunning-
ham believes that the Kaspeiraea of the last-named authoi, being the
capital of the Kaspeiraei, w’hose dominions extended from Kashmir to
Muttia, must have been the principal city m the Punjab tow^ards the
second century of the Christian era. Five hundred years earlier Multan
perhaps appears in the history of Alexander’s invasion as the chief
seat of the Malli, whom the Macedonian conqueror utterly subdued
after a desperate lesistance. He left Philippus here as Satrap, but it
seems probable that the Hellenic power in this distant quarter soon
came to an end, as the country appears shortly afterwards to have
passed under the rule of the Maurya dynasty of Magadha. At a later
period Greek influence may once more have extended to Multan under
the Bactrian kings, whose coins are occasionally found m the District.
In the seventh century a. d. Multan was the capital of an important
province in the kingdom of Sind, ruled by a line of Hindu kings
known as the Rais, the last of whom died m 631. The throne was

' A Cunningham , Geography of bdia, pp. 221-2, Ra\erty in Journal^
Asiatic Society, Bengal, vol. Ixi, 1892 ; and Oldham, L akutla Review, vol. lix, 1874

HISTOR Y

then usuiped by a Biahman named Chach, who was 111 power when
the Arabs first appeared in the valley of the Indus. During his reign,
in 641, the Chinese Buddhist pilgiim, Hiuen Tsiang, visited Multan,
where he found a golden image of the Sun^ This idol is lepeatedly
mentioned by the Arab histoiians, and fiom it General Cunningham
deiives the modern name of the city, though othei authorities connect
it rather with that of the Malli

In 664 the Arab inroads penetrated as far as JMultan , but it w^as not
until 712 that the district fell, wnth the lest of the kingdom of Sind,
before Muhammad bin Kasim, who conquered it for the Khalifas.
For three centuries Multan remained the outpost of Islam , but the
occupation w’as in the main military, and there was no geneial settle-
ment of Muhammadan mvadeis or comersion of Hindu inhabitants
till the Ghazmvid period. It was twice again captured by the x^rabs,
and in 871 the Lower Indus valley fell into the hands of Yakub bin
Lais. Shoitly afterwards two independent Muhammadan kingdoms
sprang up with then capitals at Mansuia and Multan. Multan was
visited in 915-6 by the geogiaphei Masudi, who says that ‘Multan’ is
a corruption of Mulasthanapura, by w^hich name it was knowm m the
Buddhist period. He found it a stiong Muhammadan frontiei town
under a king of the tube of Koresh, and the centre of a fertile and
thickly populated distiict In 980 the Kaimatians took Multan, and
conveited to their heiesy the family of Lodi Pathans, who had by that
tune possessed themselves of the fiontier fiom Peshawai to Multan.
When Mahmud of Ghazni took Bhatia (probably Uch), Abul Fateh,
the Lodi governoi of Multan, allied himself with Anand Pal, but sub-
mitted in 1006. He again revolted, and in 1010 was deported by
Mahmud, w^ho made his son Masud governor. Masud released Abul
Fateh, who had appaiently abandoned the Kaimatian tenets, for a
letter of 1032, which has been preserved by the Druses, addressed to
the Unitarians of Sind and Multan, and in particulai to Shaikh bin
Sumai of Multan, exhorts them to bung him back into the true faith.

For the next thiee centuries the histoiy of Multan, as the frontier
piovmce of the empire, is practically the history of the Mongol
invasions Owing to the difficulties of the Khyber loute and the
hostility of the Gakhais, the majority of the invading hordes took the
Multan road to Hindustan, until the diying up of the country all along
the Ghaggar made this route impracticable. Between 1221 and 1528
ten invasions swept through the District, commencing with the cele-
brated flight of Jalal-ud-din Khwarizm and ending with the peaceful
transfer of the province to Babar in 1528, while the city suffered
sacks and sieges too numerous to detail During this period Multan
was for the most part subject to Delhi, but twice it was a separate and
independent kingdom.

multAn district

On the death of Kutb-ud-din, Nasii-ud-din Kubacha bei/.ed Multan,
\Mth Sind and Seibtan (1210), and ruled independently till 1227
Aftei successfully resisting a Mongol siege in 1221, Multan was
reduced m 1228 by the governoi of Lahoie undei Altamsh, and again
became a fief of the Delhi empiie. On that emperor’s death, its
feudatory Izz-ud>din Kablr Khan-i-Ayaz joined in the conspiiac} to
put Razia on the thione (1236), but though he received the fief of
Lahore fiom hei, he again lebelled (1238), and was made to exchange
It foi Multan, wheie he pioclaimed his independence, and was suc-
ceeded by his son Taj-ud-dm Abu-Bakr-i-Ayaz (1241'), who repelled
scveial Karlugh attacks from the gates of the cit}

Saif-ud-dm Hasan, the Karlugh, unsuccessfully attacked Multan
(1236) Aftci his death the Mongols held the city to lansom (1246),
and at last it fell into the hands of the Karlughs, from whom it was in
the same yeai (1249) wrested by Sher Khan, the gieat viceioy of the
Punjab. Izz-ud-din Balban-i-Kashlu Khan endeavoured to lecovei
Uch and Multan (1252), and succeeded in 1254. Mahmud wShah 1
bestowed them on Arsalan Khan Sanjar-i-Chast, but Izz-ud-din was
reinstated in 1255. He rebelled against the minister Ghiyas-ud-dln
Balban (1257), and being deserted by his troops fled to Hulaku m
Irak, whence he brought back a Mongol mtendant to Multan and
joined a Mongol foice which descended on the province, and dis-
mantled the walls of the city, which only escaped massacie by a
lansom paid by the saint Bahawal Hakk (Baha-ud-dm Zakaiiya).

Foi two centuries the post of governor was held by distinguished
soldiers, often related to the ruling family of Delhi, among whom ma)
be mentioned Ghazi Malik, afterwaids Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlak. In
1395 Khizr Khan, the goveinoi, a Sai>id, quarielled wuth Sarang Khan,
governor of Dipalpui, and, being taken prisonei, escaped to join Timui
on his in\ading the Punjab After being compelled to laise the siege
of Uch, Timurs giandson defeated Sarang Khan's forces on the
Beas, and imested Multan, which suirendered aftei a siege (1398),
and Khizr Khan w^as leinstated in his go\ernoibhip Aftei a senes of
victories o\er the Delhi geneials, Khizr Khan took Delhi and founded
the Saiyid dynasty Some yeais later Bahlol Lodi held the pro\incc
before seizing the thione of Delhi In 1437 the Langahs, a Pathan
tribe lecently settled m the District, began to make then power felt,
and in 1445 Sahra Langah expelled Shaikh Yusuf, a lulei chosen
by the people and his own son-in-law, and established the Langah
dynasty, which ruled independently of Delhi for nearly 100 years, the
Ravi being recognized in 1502 as the boundary between the two
kingdoms. Finally, however, the Arghun Turks incited by Babar took
Multan in 1527, and in the following yeai handed it over to him.
Under the Mughal cmpciois Multan enjoyed a period of peace and

HISTORY

prosperity, only disturbed by the rebellion of the Mirzas, who weie
defeated at Talamba m 1573, and by the flight of Dara Shikoh through
the province. The town became the head-quarters of a Subah covering
the whole of the South-West Punjab and at times including Sind. Even
when the Mughal power began to wane Multan no longer felt the first
shock of invasion, the route through Multan and Bhatmda being now
too dry to give passage to an army In 1 748 a battle was fought near
Multan between Kaura Mai, deputy of Mir Mannu, the governor of
the Punjab, and Shahnawaz, who had received a grant of the province
from the late emperor Muhammad Shah. Kaura Mai was victorious,
but fell later fighting against Ahmad Shah Durrani. Multan in
1752 became a province of the kings of Kabul, ruled for the most
part by Pathan governors, chiefly Sadozais, who ultimately founded
a virtually independent kingdom. Their rule, however, extended over
only half the present District, the southern portion being under the
Nawabs of Bahawalpur. The Marathas overran the province in 1758,
but the chief feature of this period was the continual warfare with the
Sikhs. From 177 1-9 the Bhang! confederacy held the north and
centre of the District, but they were expelled by Timur Sh^, and from
1779 to 1818 Nawab Muzaffar Khan Sadozai was in power in Multan.
His relations with the Bahawalpur State weie stiained, and he had to
face unassisted the repeated onslaughts of the Sikhs, which culminated
in the capture and sack of Multan by Ranjit Singh in 1818

After passing through the hands of two or thiee Sikh governors,
Multan was in 1821 made over to the famous Diwan Sawan Mai. The
whole country had almost assumed the aspect of a desert from frequent
warfare and spoliation , but Sawan Mai induced new inhabitants to
settle in his province, excavated numeious canals, favoured commerce,
and restored prosperity to the desolated tract. After the death of
Ranjit Singh, however, quarrels took place between Sawan Mai and
Raja Gulab Singh ; and m 1844 the former was fatally shot in the
breast by a soldier His son Mulraj succeeded to his governorship,
and also to his quarrel with the authorities at Lahore, till their constant
exactions induced him to tender his resignation. After the establish-
ment of the Council of Regency at Lahore, as one of the results of the
first Sikh War, difficulties arose between Diwan Mulraj and the British
officials, which culminated in the murder of two Biitish officers, and
finally led to the Multan rebellion. That episode, together with the
second Sikh War, belongs rather to imperial than to local history It
ended in the capture of Multan and the annexation of the whole of the
Punj’ab by the British. The city offered a resolute defence, but, being
stormed on January 2, 1849, fell after severe fighting \ and though the
fort held out for a short time longer, it was surrendered at discretion
by Mulraj on January 22, Mulraj was put upon his trial for the
VOL. xviii. c

MULTAN DISTRICT

murder of the officers, and, being found guilty, was sentenced to death ,
but this penalty was afterwards commuted for that of transportation
The District at once passed under direct British rule. In 1857 the
demeanour of the native regiments stationed at Multan made their
disarmament necessary, and, doubtless owing to this precaution, no
outbreak took place.

The principal leinains of archaeological inteiest are described in the
ai tides on Atari, Jalalpur, Kahror, Multan, and Talamea.

The District contains 6 toivns and 1,351 villages. The population
at each of the last three enumerations was: (1881) 556,557, (1891)
635,726, and (1901) 710,626. During the last decade
opu a ion. increased by 11*7 per cent, the increase being
greatest in the Multan tahsil and least m Lodhran. The increase was
largely due to immigration, for which the attractions of the city are
partly responsible, and to some extent to the colonization of the
Sidhnai Canal tract between 1886 and 1896 The District is divided
into five tahslls^ Multan, Shujabad, Lodhran, Mailsi, and Kabir-
WALA, the head-quarters of each being at the place from which it
IS named. The chief to^vns are the municipalities of Multan,
the administrative head-quarters of the Distiict, Shujabad, Kahror,
Talamba, and Jalalpur. The following table shows the chief
statistics of population in 1901 : —

Note —The figures for the areas of iahstls are taken from revenue returns. The
total Distnct area is that given m the Cetisus Report

Muhammadans number 570,254, or over 80 per cent, of the total;
Hmdus, 133,560 ; and Sikhs, 4,662. The density of population is very
low, but IS comparatively high if the cultivated area only be taken into
account. The language of the people, often called Multanl, is a form
of Western Punjabi.

The most numerous tribe is that of the agricultural Jats, who number
140,000, or 20 per cent, of the total population. Next to them come
the Rajputs (92,000), and after them Arains (32,000), cultivators and
market-gardeners. Then come the Baloch (24,000), Khokhars (12,000),

AGRICULTURE

and Pathans (8,000). The Saiyids number r 1,000, and Kuieshis
8,000. Of the commercial classes, the Aroras, who are found m larger
numbers in Multan than m any other District of the Province, number
89,000; the Khattris, who are largely immigrants from the Punjab
proper, only 11,000. The Muhammadan Khojas, more numerous here
than in any other District in the Punjab except Montgomery and La-
hore, number 10,000 The Bhatias (3,000), though small in num-
bers, also deserve mention as a commercial caste. Of the artisan
classes, the Julahas (weavers, 27,000), Mochis (shoemakers and leather-
workers, 24,000), Kumhars (potteis, 19,000), and Taikhans (carpenters,
17,000) are the most impoitant , and of the menial classes, the sweepers
(38,000), who are mostly knowm in this District as Kutanas, Dhobis
(washermen, 15,000, known as Charhoas), Machhis (fisheimen, bakers,
and water-carriers, 12,000), and Nais (baibers, 8,000). The Mlrasis,
village minstrels and bards, number 11,000. Other castes worth men-
tion are the Mahtams (5,900), of whom the Muhammadan section
are generally cultivators, while the Hindus make a livmg by clearing
jungle or hunting game, Ods (4,000), a wandering caste living by
earthwork ; Jhabels (3,000), a fishing and hunting tribe of vagrant
habits, living on the banks of the Sutlej ; and Maiths (700), also a
vagrant tribe found only in this District. About 40 per cent, of the
population are supported by agriculture, and 28 per cent by industries.

The Church Missionary Society began its opeiations at Multan city
in 1855, and the mission school, the oldest in the District, was
established there in the following year. The mission also maintains
a church, a female hospital, and a branch of the Punjab Religious
Book Dep6t The American Methodist Episcopal Mission began
work at Multan in 1893. The District contained 198 native Chnstians
in 1901.

The soil is of a uniform alluvial composition, with sand everywhere
at a greater or less depth from the surface ; and the chief distinction of
soils depends on the proportions in which the sand Agriculture
and clay are intermixed, though there are also some
tracts of salt-impregnated earth. From an agricultural point of view,
however, all distinctions of soil are insignificant compared with that
between irrigated and unimgated land, and the agricultural conditions
depend almost entirely on the quality and quantity of irrigation.

The Distnct is held chiefly by small peasant proprietors, but large
estates cover 627 square miles and lands held under temporary leases
from Government about 533 square miles. The area for which details
are available from the revenue records of 1903-4 is 5,952 square miles,
as shown in the table on the next page.

Wheat IS the chief crop of the spring harvest, covering 555 square
miles in 1903-4. Gram and barley covered only 40 and 21 square

MULTAN DISTRICT

miles respectively. The great and spiked millets {jowdr and bdjra)
are the principal staples of the autumn harvest, covering 94 and 58
square miles, and pulses occupied 69 square miles. Theie were 26
square miles undei indigo, 20 under rice, and 102 under cotton.
Very little sugar or maize is grown.

TahstL

Total

Cultivated

Irrigated

Cultivable

waste

Forests

Multan

953

364

331

242

268

Kabinvala

1,604

343

298

304

889

Mailsi

1,656

3 ”

244

374

882

Lodhran

1,058

267

248

3S2

316

Shujabad

6S1

256

189

2S9

Total

5,953

L 54 I

1,310

1.591

2 , 4^5

The area under cultivation vanes enormously with the character of
the season, but the average area sown increased by about 30 per cent
in the twenty years ending 1901-2, owing to the extension of canal- and
well-1 rrigation Loans for the construction of wells are taken readily,
and more than 3 lakhs was advanced undei the Land Improvement
Loans Act duiing the five years ending 1903-4.

Four breeds of cattle are recognized : the Bhagnari (from Sind), the
Massuwah and Dajal (from Dera Ghazi Khan), and the local breed,
which is mostly of an inferior desciiption. Cow buffaloes aie kept for
milk. Camels are very largely bred, and sheep and goats are common
in all parts. Horses and ponies are numerous, but the District is
only a moderately good one for horse-breeding The Army Remount
department mamtains six horse and eleven donkey stallions, and the
District board one donkey and three pony stallions.

Of the total area cultivated in 1903-4, 1,310 square miles, or 85
per cent, were classed as irrigated Of this area, 123 square miles
were supplied from wells, 758 from wells and canals, 417 from canals,
and 12 from channels and tanks. In addition, 276 square miles, or
18 per cent of the cultivated area, are subject to inundation from
the Chenab, Sutlej, and Ravi. Three great canal systems irrigate the
District the Sidhnai taking off from the Ravi, the Lower Sutlej
Inundation Canals, and the Chenab Inundation Canals. As
these canals flow only while the rivers are m flood, they generally
require to be supplemented by wells. The Distiict possesses 21,615
wells, all worked by Persian wheels, and 3,744 unbricked wells, lever
wells, and water-lifts. The latter are largely used for lifting water from
river channels.

The Distiict contains 157 square miles of ‘reserved’ and 2,323 of
‘ protected ’ forests, under the Deputy-Conservator of the Multan Forest
division* These forests are chiefly waste land covered with scrub and

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS

scattered trees Avenues of shlsham (Dalhergia Stssoo) are found
along the roads and canals, and the date-palm is grown largely,
considerable quantities of the fruit being exported. The revenue
from forests under the Forest department in 1903-4 was 1*2 lakhs.

Saltpetre is manufactured to some extent, and a little kankar is
found. Impure carbonate of soda is also made from the ashes of
Haloxylon rccurvum^ which grows wild in considerable quantities.

The industrial products for which the city of Multan is noted are

glazed pottery, enamelling on silver, silver ornaments, cotton and

woollen carpets, silk fabrics, mixed textures of cotton

^ Trade and

and silk, cotton printing, inetal-woik, and ivory- communications.

turning. The glazed pottery work, which used to

be confined to the manufacture of tiles, now largely takes the form of

ornamental vases, plaques, &c., and the enamelling industry is on the

increase. The manufacture of carpets has greatly fallen off. Multan

is second only to Amritsar in the manufacture of silk, and over 40,000

yards of silk fabrics and 200,000 of silk and cotton mixtuies are

produced annually. A large number of ivory bangles are turned.

The metal-work consists chiefly of the manufacture of dispatch boxes

and uniform cases, which is a rapidly growing industry. Cotton cloth

is woven, and a once flourishing paper manufactuie still lingers.

Multan city has a railway workshop, with 315 employes in 1904, and

10 cotton-ginning and 3 cotton-pressing factoiies, with a total of 657

hands. At Shujabad a ginning factoiy employs 21 hands, and at

Rashida on the North-Western Railway a ginning factory and cotton-

press employs 150.

The District exports wheat, cotton, indigo, bones, hides, and car-
bonate of soda ; and imports rice, oilseeds, oil, sugar, ghl^ iron, and
piece-goods. The imports of law wool exceed the exports, but cleaned
wool IS a staple of export. The chief items of European trade are
wheat, cotton, and wool. Multan city is the only commeicial place of
importance, and has long been an important centre of the wheat
trade.

The District is traversed by the North-Western Railway main line
from Lahore to Karachi, which is joined by the Rechna Doab branch
from WazTrabad and Lyallpur at Khanewal After reaching Multan
city the line gives off the branch running through Muzaffargarh, along
the Indus valley, which leaves the District by a bndge over the Chenab.
It then turns south, and enters Bahawalpur by a bridge over the Sutlej.
The total length of metalled loads is 31 miles and of unmetalled roads
1,199 miles , of these, 13 miles of metalled roads are under the Public
Works department, and the rest are maintained by the Distnet board.
There is practically no wheeled traffic, goods being carried by camels,
donkeys, or pack-bullocks. The Chenab is crossed by ten ferries, the

MULTAN DISTRICT

Administration.

Sutlej by thirty-one, and the Ravi by twelve. Theie is but little tiaffic
on these rivers

Befoie Biitish rule cultivation was confined to the area commanded
by wells, and though drought might contract the cultivated aiea and
cause great loss of cattle, real famine could never
Famine, occur. The extension of cultivation that has taken
place since annexation has followed the development of irrigation by
wells and canals, and though considerable loss of cattle is still incurred
in times of drought, the Distiict is secure from famine, and exports
wheat in the worst years. The area of crops matured in the famine
year 1899-1900 amounted to 75 per cent, of the normal.

The District is in charge of a Deputy-Commissioner, aided by two
Assistant or Extra-Assistant Commissioners and two Revenue Assistant
Commissioners, of whom one is m charge of the Dis-
trict treasury. It is divided for general administrative
purposes into the five iahsils of Multan, Shujabad, Lodhran, Mailsi,
and Kabirwala, each under a tahsilddr assisted by two natb^tahsilddrs
Multan city is the head-quarters of a Superintending Engineer and two
Executive Engineers of the Canal department, and of an Extra- Assistant
Conservator of Forests.

The Deputy-Commissioner as District Magistrate is responsible foi
criminal justice. Civil judicial work is under a District Judge, and
both officers are supervised by the Divisional Judge of the Multan
Civil Division, who is also Sessions Judge. There are two Munsifs,
both at head-quarters. Cattle- theft is the principal crime of the
District, but burglary is also becoming common. Cattle-lifting is
regarded as a pastime rather than a cnme, and proficiency in it is
highly esteemed.

The greater part of the District was administered for twenty-three
years by Dlwan Sawan Mai. He adopted the system usual with native
rulers of taking a share of one-thud, one-fourth, or one-sixth of the
produce, or else a cash assessment based on these proportions but
generally calculated a little higher than the market rate. Cash lates
per acre were levied on the more valuable crops. Another form of
assessment was the lease or patta^ under which a plot of 15 to 20
acres, generally round a well, paid a lump annual sum of Rs. 12 or
more In addition, many cesses and extra dues were imposed, until
the uttermost farthing had in some way or other been taken from the
cultivator.

On annexation, the first summary settlement ivas made at cash rates
fixed on the average receipt of the preceding four years. Prices,
however, had fallen ; and the fixity of the assessment, added to the
payment in cash, pressed hardly on the people, and the assessment
broke down. The second summary settlement made in 1853-4, despite

ADMINISTRA TION

reductions and attempts to introduce elasticity in collections, did not
work well. In 1857-60 a regular settlement was undertaken A fixed
sum was levied in canal areas, amounting to 16 per cent, below the
previous assessment, to allow for varying conditions. It was estimated
that about 54 per cent, of the revenue might require to be remitted m
bad years. In point of fact remissions were not given, but the assess-
ment was so light that this was not felt. In 1873 a revised settlement
was begun. The new revenue was 86 per cent, of the half ‘ net assets,’
and an increase of 40 per cent, on the last demand. A fluctuating
system, which made the assessments depend largely on actual cul-
tivation, was definitely adopted m riverain tracts, and the system of
1 emission pioposed at the regular settlement was extended in the
canal areas.

The current settlement, completed between 1897 and 1901, was a
new departure in British assessments, though the resemblance to
Sawan Mai’s system is notable. On every existing well is imposed
a lump assessment, which is classed as fixed revenue, and paid irre-
spective of the area from time to time irrigated by the well, if, however,
the well falls out of use for any cause, the demand is remitted. All
cultivation other than that dependent entirely on well-water pays at
fluctuating rates, assessed on the area matured in each harvest. Thus,
although the revenue is approximately 92 per cent, of the half ‘net
assets,’ and the demand of the former settlement has been more than
doubled, there is no fear of revenue being exacted from lands which
have no produce to pay it with. The crop rates vary from Rs 3-5 per
acre on wheat, tobacco, &c , to Rs. 2-2 on inferior crops. The demand,
including cesses, was 17-5 lakhs m 1903-4. The average size of a
proprietary holding is 8*3 acres.

The collections of land revenue alone and of total revenue are shown
below, in thousands of rupees • —

1880-1.

1890-1

IQOO-I

1903-4

Land revenue .

7,61

8,26

6,60

1 , 71 *

Total revenue .

9.72

11,22

12,05

I3>i6

* These figures are for the financial year ending March 1904 The demand
figures given above (17 5 lakhs, including cesses) are for the agricultural year,
and include the revenue demand for the spring harvest of 1904, which was very
much higher than that for the corresponding harvest of 1903

The District contains five municipalities, Multan, Shujabab, Kah-
ROR, Talamba, and Jalalpur, and one ‘notified area,’ Dunyapur.
Outside these, local affairs are managed by the District board. The
expenditure of the board in 1903-4 was i*i lakhs, education being
the largest individual item. Its income, which is mainly derived from
a local rate, slightly exceeded the expendituie.

MVLTAN DISTRICT

The regular police force consists of S04 of all ranks, including 41
cantonment and 252 municipal police, under a Superintendent, who
usually has one Assistant Superintendent and 5 inspectors under him.
The village watchmen number 943 The District is divided into t 8
police circles, with 5 outposts and 9 road-posts. The District jail at
head-quarters has accommodation for 743 prisoners. It receives pri-
soners sentenced to terms not exceeding three years from the Districts
of Multan and Muzaffargarh, and in the hot season from Mianwali.
The Central jail, situated 4 miles outside the city, is designed to hold
1,197 prisoners Convalescents from all jails in the Punjab are sent
here.

Multan stands third among the twenty-eight Districts of the Province
in respect of the literacy of its population. In 1901, 5*7 per cent, of
the population (lo-i males and 0*4 females) could read and write.
The high proportion of literate persons is chiefly due to the Hindus,
among whom education is not, as elsewhere, practically denied to the
lower castes The number of people under instruction was 3,684 in
1880-1, 7,355 m 1890-1, 8,156 in 1900-1, and 8,881 in 1903-4. In
the last year the District had one training, one special, 13 secondary
and 82 primary (public) schools, and 26 advanced and 141 elementary
(private) schools, with 296 giils in the public and 166 in the private
schools. The chief institutions are a Government noimal school and
thiee high schools at Multan city. The District also possesses five
zamlnddri schools, where special concessions are made for the purpose
of extending education to the agricultural classes. There is a school
of music (unaided) for boys at Multan. The expenditure on education
in 1903-4 was Rs 89,000, of which fees contributed Rs. 25,000,
municipalities Rs 16,000, the District fund Rs. 19,000, and Provincial
revenues Rs 22,000, the rest coming from subscriptions and en-
dowments

Besides the civil hospital, two city branch dispensaries, and the
Victoria Jubilee Hospital for women in Multan city, the District pos-
sesses eight outlying dispensaries. At these institutions, 119,044 out-
patients and 2,510 in-patients were treated in 1904, and 6,153 operations
were performed. The Church Missionary Society also mamtams a female
hospital at Multan. The total expenditure in 1904 was Rs. 27,000,
Rs. 16,000 being contributed by District and municipal funds in equal
shares.

The number of persons vaccinated m 1903-4 was 27,700, repre-
senting 39 per 1,000 of the population. Vaccination is compulsory in
Multan city.

[E. D Maclagan, District Gazetteer (190 1-2), Settlement Report
(1901); and ‘Abul FazFs Account of the Multan Journal

As. Soc, 0/ Bengal {i go i), p. i; Saiyid Muhammad Latif, Early History

MULTAN CITY

of Multan (1891); C. A. Roe, Customary Late) of the Multan District
(revised edition, 1901), E. O’Brien, Glossary of the Multdni Language^
revised edition, by J. Wilson and Pandit Han Kishan Kaul (1903).]

Multan Tahsil . — Tahsll of Mult^ District, Punjab, lying bet\veen
29^ 29' and 30° 28' N. and 71° 17' and 71° 58' E, with an area of
953 square miles. Its north-west border rests on the Chenab. It
consists of the Chenab lowlands, which are subj‘ect to periodical
inundation from the river, a higher tract farther east irrigated by
inundation canals, and a still higher strip beyond irrigated in part by
the Sidhnai Canal. The population in 1901 was 232,126, compared
with 190,431 in 1891. The head-quarters are at Multan City
(population, 87,394). It also contains 289 villages. The land levenue
and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to 4*9 lakhs.

Multan City. — Head-quarters of the Multan Division, Distiict, and
tahsll^ in the Punjab, situated in 30® 12' N. and 71° 31' E, on the
North-Western Railway, 576 miles from Karachi and 1,429 from
Calcutta. The city is built on a mound, the accumulated dibris of
ages, at a distance of 4 miles from the present left bank of the Chenab,
enclosed on three sides by a wall from 10 to 20 feet in height, but
open towards the south, where the old dry bed of the Ravi intervenes
between the city and the citadel. As late as the days of Tlmui, the
Ravi seems to have flowed past Multan, joining the Chenab 10 miles
lower down j and the original site consisted of two islands, which are
now picturesquely crowned by the city and citadel, at an elevation of
50 feet above the surrounding country. Population (1901), 87,394,
including 46,899 Muhammadans and 36,947 Hindus.

Multan, formerly called Kashtpur, Hanspur, Bagpur, Sanb or Sanab-
pur, and finally Mulasthan, derives its name from that of the idol and
temple of the Sun, a shrine of vast wealth in the pre-Muhammadan
period. As one of the frontier towns of India, it has been from the
earliest times of the greatest historical importance, and its history is
given in detail with that of Multan District. Tradition identifies
the present site with the strong city of the Malli, stormed by Alexander.
For the next thousand years the conquerors of Multan present an
amazing variety of race — Graeco-Bactrians are followed by the Kushans,
who in turn give place to the White Huns. When the Arabs first
penetrated the valley of the Indus, the town was ruled by Chach,
a Brahman usurper, who died in a.d. 671. The Arabs entered India
from Smd, and after a victorious campaign they captured and garrisoned
Multan. For three centuries the garrison remained the outpost of
Islam in India, though by 900 the Multan governor was independent
of Baghdad. About that time the followers of Abdullah, the Karmatian,
seized Multan. Mahmud, the orthodox ruler of Ghazni, waged per-
petual war upon this heretical sect, and the Ghaznivids kept a nominal

MULTAN CITY

control over Multan until Muhammad of Ghor overthrew them. The
city fared but ill thioughout these sectarian wars, and is said to have
been deseited when the Gardezi Saiyids first migrated there in the
twelfth century.

From 1206 to 1528 Multan was nominally subject to the kings of
Delhi, though in fact it was almost independent. In 1397 Timur
occupied the city on his way to Delhi, and in 1528 it passed to Babar.
Always the route chosen by the earlier invaders, whether going or
returning, the province of Multan passed with its capital city from
hand to hand, with short space to recover from one devastation ere
the next came upon it Under the strong government of the early
Mughal emperors, Multan at last enjoyed 200 years of peace. The
trade route from Hindustan to Persia passed through it, and Multan
itself became a trading city. The later invaders chose the northern
loute, and Multan owed its immunity to the desert which had suddenly
leplaced the fertile lands of Sind.

In 1752 the nominal allegiance of Multan w^as transferred from
Delhi to Kabul. In 1771 the Sikhs appeared before the gates, and
the city was constantly threatened from that date until it was*, stormed
by Ranjlt Singh in 1818. In 1821 Dlwan Sawan Mai became its
governor, and a just, if absolute, autocracy replaced the confusion of
the Pathan regime. The first Sikh War did not affect Multan , but
the murder of two British officers here by Mulraj, son of SSwan Mai,
led to the second Sikh War, in which it was captured on January 3,
1849. The fortifications were dismantled in 1854. In the Mutiny
the garrison was quietly disarmed by orders of the Chief Commissioner.
In consequence of a not which broke out m September, 1881, between
Hindus and Muhammadans the city was occupied by troops for ten
days, and a punitive police post was imposed on the city for a year.

Large and irregular suburbs have grown up outside the walls
since the annexation in 1849. Within the city proper, one broad
bazar, the Chauk, runs from the Husain Gate for a quarter of a mile
into the centre of the city, ending at the Wali Muhammad Gate,
from which three broad streets lead to the various gates of the city.
The other streets are narrow and tortuous, often ending in culs-de~
sac. The principal buildings include the shrines of the Muham-
madan saints, Baha-ud-din and Rukn-ul-alam (of the Arab tribe of
Kuresh, to which the Prophet belonged), which stand in the citadel.
Close by are the remains of an ancient Hindu temple of the Nara-
singh Avatar of Vishnu, called Pahladpuri, partially blown down by
the explosion of the powder magazine during the siege of 1848-9.
The great temple of the Sun once occupied the very middle of the
citadel, but was destroyed during the reign of the zealous Muham-
madan emperor Aurangzeb, who erected a Jama Masjid or cathedral

MULTAN CITY

mosque in its place. This mosque afterwards became the powder
magazine of the Sikhs, and was blown up. Within the foit, and
overlooking the city, is the plain, massive obelisk, 70 feet m height,
elected in memory of Mr. Vans Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson,
the two British officers murdered in April, 1848, at the outbieak of
Mulraj's rebellion. East of the city is the Amkhas, formerly the
audience hall and garden-house of the Hindu governors of Multan,
now used as the iahsll building. North of this is the cenotaph of
Dlwan Sawan Mai and the European cemetery. A fine public garden
lies to the west of the city.

The 'civil station of Multan lies north and west of the native
city, and the cantonment lies in the high stretch of land to the
south-west. The garrison, which belongs to the Lahore division,
consists of a company of garrison artillery, a battalion of British
infantry, a regiment of Native cavalry, two of Native infantry, and
a detachment of railway volunteers. The municipality was created
in 1867. The income and expenditure during the ten years ending
1902-3 averaged 1*7 lakhs. The income in 1903-4 was 1-9 lakhs,
the chief source being octroi (Rs. 1,51,000), while the expenditure of
I 8 lakhs included conservancy (Rs. 32,000), education (Rs. 29,000),
medical (Rs. 19,000), public safety (Rs. 35,000), and administration
(Rs. 26,000). The income and expenditure of cantonment funds
during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 34,000.

As a trade centre, Multan is of the first importance, being connected
by rail with Lahore and Karachi, and by the Ravi, Jhelum, and
Chenab with the whole Central Punjab. Large quantities of raw
produce are shipped by country boats from Sher Shah, the port of
Multan, to Karachi. The trade of Multan comprises every article of
produce, manufacture, and consumption in the Province. The chief
imports are cotton and other piece-goods ; while the main staples of
export are wheat, sugar, cotton, indigo, and wool. Leaving out
of consideration what the city requires for its own use, the function
of Multan as a trade centre is to collect cotton, wheat, wool, oilseeds,
sugar, and indigo from the surrounding country, and to export them
to the south ; to receive fruits, drugs, raw silk, and spices from
Kandahar traders, and to pass them on to the east. The Afghan
traders take back indigo, European and country cotton cloth, sugar,
and shoes. Multan receives European piece-goods and European
wares generally, and distributes them to the western Districts and in
Its own neighbourhood. The chief local manufactures are silk- and
cotton-weaving and carpet-making; country shoes are also made m
large quantities for exportation. The glazed pottery and enamel work
of Multan, although not industries on a large scale, have a high
reputation, and the manufacture of tin boxes is a growing and

MULTiN CITY

important industry. The North-Western Railway workshops gi\e
employment to 315 peisons, and 10 cotton-ginning and three cotton-
pressing factories have an aggregate of 657 hands. There is a branch
of the Punjab Banking Company.

The chief educational institutions are the three high schools, a
middle school for European boys, and St. Mary’s Convent middle
school for girls. There are English and Roman Catholic churches in
the cantonment, and a station of the Church Missionary Society,
Besides the civil hospital with two branch dispensaries, the Church
Missionary Society maintains the Victoria Jubilee Hospital for Women.

Multhan. — Thakurdtm the Bhopawar Agency, Central India

Munda. — An aboriginal tribe of the Chota Nagpur Division, Bengal,
where they numbered 438,000 m 1901. They are mainly to be found
in Ranchi District, and are closely akin to the Ho, Bhumij, and Santal
tribes. The name Munda is of Sanskrit origin and denotes a ‘ village
headman ’ , the people call themselves Horo (meaning ‘ man ’). Their
physical type is Dravidian, but their language is allied to those spoken
by the Ho, Santal, Bhumij, and other cognate tribes. These dialects
form a distinct linguistic family, variously knowm as Munda or Kol, the
origin of which is one of the most obscure philological problems of the
day. It was suggested by Logan that they were evolved from the con-
tact of the southern Dravidian languages with Mon-Anam forms of
speech brought to India by Mongolian invaders from the north-east.
The majority of the tribe (296,000) are returned as Animists, but there
are 85,000 Hmdus and 56,000 Christians; conversion to Christianity
has recently made rapid progress among this race.

The village community retains its primitive form among the Mundas,
and is provided with a complete staff of village officials. The munda is
the headman ; he is responsible for the rent of the village, which he col-
lects and pays to the mdnki or head of a group of villages, where there
is one, or to the landlord. The mahto is an accountant, the pahn a
priest, the hha?iddri the landlord’s agent, and the gorait a watchman.
These officials are remunerated by grants of land held rent-free or at
privileged rents, or by payments in gram or in cash, as are also the ahJr
or cowherd, and the lohdr or blacksmith. The system prevails in its
entirety in the tract of Ranchi District which borders on Singhbhum
and is known as the mdnM-faitt. Here many of the mankis and
mundas are the descendants of the original chiefs, and still hold the
villages which their ancestors founded. These villages are cultivated
by the descendants of the original reclaimers, and each family is re-
sponsible for the payment of a fixed quota of the village rent. For
many years past the landlords have been endeavouring to break down
the prescriptive rights of these people, which they are most tenacious
in assertmg, and the discontent thus engendered culminated m the

MUNGAOLI

Munda using of 1899. This outbreak was speedily suppressed; but,
in order to remove the grievances complained of, the Munda tract is
being surveyed and settled, and an Act has been passed by the Local
Government to protect the rights of these village communities.

In the early pait of the last century the Mundas gave a great deal of
trouble. There were outbreaks in 1811 and in 1820; and in 1831 a
serious insurrection took place, caused by the lease of some villages
by the brother of the Maharaja of Chota Nagpur to Sikhs and other
foreigners. This insurrection was suppressed with some difficulty in
1832 by Captain (aftei wards Sir Thomas) Wilkinson.

Mundargi. — Village in the Gadag tdhika of Dharwar District, Bom-
bay, situated in 15° 12' N. and 75° 53' E., at the base of a hill on which
stands a ruined fort, about 24 miles south-east of Gadag town. Popu-
lation (1901), 4,657 Its position on the Nizam’s frontier has helped
Mundargi to grow into a large maiket town. At the time of the
Mutiny of 1857, it was under an hereditary district officer named
Bhimrao Nadgir, who corresponded with the rebel chief of Nargund
and murdered a British guard He subsequently fell at the siege of
Kopal. The village contains three schools, including one for girls.

Mundeswari. — Hill in the Bhabua subdivision of Shahabad District,
Bengal, situated in 25° 2' N. and 83^^ 35' E. It is the site of an inter-
esting Hindu temple, dating from the sixth or seventh century, which
IS said to have been built by Manda Daitya, probably a Chero chief.

[M. Martin (Buchanan Hamilton), Eastern India^ voL 1 (1838).]

Mundlana {Mandldnd). — Village in the Gohana tahsll of Rohtak
District, Punjab, situated in 29° 12' N. and 76° 50' E. Population
(1901), 5,657. It is administered as a ‘notified area ’

Mundlesoor. — Town m the Indore State, Central India. See
Mandleshwar.

Mundra — Poit in the State of Cutch, Bombay, situated in 22° 49' N.
and 69° 52' E , on the coast of the Gulf of Cutch, 29 miles south of
Bhuj. Population (1901), 10,600. There is a made road from the
port to the town, which is 3-| miles distant The fort, which is situated
2 1 miles north of the port, contains a white mosque distinguishable
a good way off. The municipal income m 1903-4 was Rs. 4,000.
The town contains a dispensary

Mundwa. — Town in the Nagaur district of the State of Jodhpur,
Rajput^a, situated in 27° 4' N and 73° 49"^ E., on the Jodhpur-Bikaner
Railway, 89 miles north-east of Jodhpur city. Population (1901), 5,121.
Mundwa is a commercial mart of some importance, noted for wooden
toys and other fancy articles, and is the home of several prosperous
Marwari traders having business connexions in various parts of India.

Miing. — Village in Gujrat Distnct, Punjab See Mono,

Mungaoli — Head-quaiters of the Isagarh district of Gwalior State,

MU NG AO LI

Central India, situated in 24° 25' N and 78° 8' E., on the left bank of
the Betwa iiver Population (1901), 45797- The town was founded
by Chandel Rajputs and was formerly called IdrasI or Indrasi. It
subsequently received the name of Mungavali or Mungaoli after
Munga Shah, a Muhammadan saint who lived here. At Mirkabad,
one mile distant, is a settlement for members of the Moghia criminal
tribe The export of grain from the town has increased since the
opening of the Bina-Baran branch of the Great Indian Peninsula
Railway, but the want of feeder roads in the neighbourhood makes
any material impiovement impossible A municipality was constituted
in 1904. Besides the usual offices, a school with a boarding-house,
another special school for Moghias, a district jail, a hospital, a State
post office, and a police station are located in the town.

Mungeli Tahsil. — Western tah'Hl of Bilaspur Distnct, Central
Provinces, lying between 21^ 53' and 22° 40' N. and 81° 12' and
82® 2' E In 1901 its area was 1,794 square miles, and the population
was 255,054 On the formation of the new Drug District, the portion
of the tahsil south of a line drawn from the noith-east coiner of
Kawardha State to the junction of the Agar and Seonath rivers was
transferred to the Bemetara iahsil of that District. The revised aiea
and population of the Mungeli tahsil are 1,452 square miles and
177,116 persons. The population of the same area in 1891 was
248,740. The density is 122 persons per square mile. The tahstl
contains one town, Mungeli (population, 5,907), the head-quarters ,
and 878 inhabited villages. It includes the zaminddri estates of
Pandaria and Kantell, with an area of 512 square miles and a popula-
tion of 53,937. Of the zaminddris^ 263 square miles are covered with
tree and scrub forest. The land revenue demand in 1902-3 on the
area now constitutmg the tahsil was approximately i-i8 lakhs. The
tah^l has 410 square miles of Government forest, and also contains
a tract of black soil and the ordinary rice land of Chhattlsgarh. The
open country is noticeably bare of trees.

Mungeli Town. — Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name in
Bilaspur District, Central Provinces, situated in 22® 4' N. and 81° 41' E.,
on the Agar river, 31 miles west of Bilaspur town by road. Population
(rqoi), 5,907. The town is increasing in importance, and is the centre
of trade for most of the Mungeli tahsiL Gram is generally sent to
Bhatapara station, 32 miles distant. A station of the American Un-
sectarian Mission, called the Disciples of Chnst, has been established
at Mungeli, which supports a leper asylum, a dispensary, and schools.
The Government mstitutions compnse a dispensary, a vernacular
middle school, and a girls’ school. Sanitation is provided for by
a small fund raised from the inhabitants,

Mungir,— Distnct, subdivision, and town in Bengal. See Monghyr.

MURBAD 41

Mungledye. — Subdivision of Darrang District, Eastern Bengal and
Assam. See Mangaldai.

Mungra-Badshahpur. — Town m the Machbllshahr tahsil of Jaun-
pur District, United Provinces, situated m 25° 40' N. and 82° 12' E ,
on the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway, and on the load from Jaunpur
city to Allahabad. Population (1901), 6,130. The town is said to
have been founded by Ibrahim Shah of Jaunpur. On the cession of
the Benares province to the British, it became a customs post and trade
centre between Oudh and Benares. It is still a mart for the impoit of
cotton from Allahabad andTor the export of sugar. Mungra-Badshah-
pur IS administered under Act XX of 1856, with an income of about
Rs. 1,400. There is a primary school with 75 pupils.

Munjpur. — Petty State m Kathiawar, Bombay.

Munmar. — Town in Nasik District, Bombay. See Manmad.

Munshiganj Subdivision. — South-eastern subdivision of Dacca
District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, lying between 23° 14' and 23° 41' N.
and 90° 10' and 90° 42' E , with an area of 386 square miles. The
subdivision is a fertile alluvial tiact, bounded on three sides by large
rivers, the Padma on the south, the Meghna on the east, and the
Dhaleswari on the north. The population in 1901 was 638,351,
compared with 581,051 in 1891. It contains 978 villages, but no town ;
the head-quarters are at Munshiganj. This subdivision, which con-
tains the greater part of the old Bikrampur pargana^ is one of the
most thickly populated rural tracts m India, having a density of 1,654
persons per square mile. The principal centres of trade are Munshi-
ganj, near which a large annual fair, known as the Kartik Baruni mela^
is held for a month in December and January, Bhagyakul, Lohajang,
and Mirkadim

Munshiganj Town. — Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same
name in Dacca Distnct, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 23° 33'
N and 90° 32' E., on the banks of the Meghna. Population (1901),
964. The station possesses the usual public offices \ the sub-jail
has accommodation for 17 prisoners. Munshiganj has been identi-
fied as the site of the ancient Idrakpur. The Kartik Baruni mela is
a large commercial gathering held on the banks of the Dhaleswari in
December and January. It used to be the great centre from which
traders in neighbounng Districts took their supplies, and is still largely
attended , but its importance has declined now that the steamers
have brought almost every village on the banks of the large rivers into
touch with Calcutta.

Muradabad. — District, tahsil^ and city in the United Provmces.
See Moradabad.

Murar, — Cantonment in Gwalior State, Central India. See Morar.

Murbad. — South-eastern tdluka of Th^a District, Bombay, lying

MURBAD

between 19° 7' and 19° 27' N. and 73° 23' and 73° 48' E., with an
area of 350 square miles. It contains 171 villages, Murbad being
the head-quarters. The population m 1901 was 62,569, compared with
65,641 m 1891. The density, 179 persons per square mile, is below
the District average. Land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted
to more than 1*3 lakhs. The people are mostly Thakurs, Kolls, and
Marathas. Most of the taluka is very hilly and fairly wooded. The
soil is poor and the uplands of little value, except as supplying brush-
wood for manure. It suffers from the want of means of exporting its
pioduce, but a good high road now bisects it. The water supplied by
wells IS fairly good but scanty. The climate is oppressive, though not
unhealthy , after the rams, however, it is malarious.

Murgod. — Village in the Parasgad taluha of Belgaum Distnct, Bom-
bay, and head-quarteis of the Murgod mahdl or petty division, situated
in 15° 53' N and 74° 56' E., 27 miles east of Belgaum town. Popu-
lation (1901), 5,655. Murgod IS a considerable market for cotton and
gram, and some business is done in printmg cotton cloth. A small
fair lasting for six days is held annually, in honour of Chitambareshwar,
at the temple of Mallikarjun. In 1565, after the battle of Talikota,
Muigod was taken by Vitta Gauda, the ancestor of the present Sar
Desai of Sirsangi. After his death it was held by Sivaji. The village
contains one boys’ and one girls’ school, attended by 18 and 12 pupils
respectively.

Murree Tahsil. — Noithem iahstl of Rawalpindi District, Punjab,
l}'ing between 33° 42' and 34° 1' N. and 73*^ 12' and 73° 36' E , with
an area of 258 square miles It is bounded on the east by the Jhelum
river, which cuts it off from Kashmir territory The tahsil is composed
of three mam spurs, running north and south, with intervening valleys
and connecting ridges The most westerly is the Murree spur, which
rises to 7,517 feet above the sea, the highest point in the District. The
higher hills are thickly wooded with pine and fir, while the lower
slopes bear a plentiful growth of oak, acacia, &c. The population
in 1901 was 52,303, compared with 45,772 in 1891. The hill station
of Murree is the tahsil head-quarters, and it also contains 120 villages.
The land revenue and cesses m 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 16,000.

Murree Town. — Hill sanitarium and head-quarters of the tahsil of
the same name in Rawalpindi District, Punjab, situated m 33° 55' N.
and 73® 23' E., 39 miles from Rawalpindi town, on a spur of the
Himalayas, at the height of 7,517 feet above sea-level. The population
in March, 1901, was 1,844, but m the summer it probably amounts to
over 10,000 In the hot season it is the head-quarters of the Lieutenant-
General of the Northern Command. The Commissioner of the Rawal-
pindi Division and the Deputy-Commissioner of Rawalpindi also reside
here during part of the hot season, for which period an Assistant Com-

MURSAN

missioner is placed in charge of the subdivision consisting of ihe Murree
tahslL The site was selected in 1850 almost immediately after the
annexation of the Province, and building operations commenced at
once. In 1851 temporary accommodation was provided for a detach-
ment of troops ; and in 1853 permanent barracks were erected. The
garrison generally consists of thiee mountain batteries. In 1873, 1874,
and 1875 Murree was the summer head-quarters of the Punjab Govern-
ment. It is connected with Rawalpindi town by a service of tongas.
The houses crown the summit and sides of an irregular ridge, com-
manding magnificent views over forest-clad hill-sides into deep valleys
studded with villages and cultivated fields. The neighbouring hills are
covered during the summer with encampments of British troops, while
the station itself is filled with European visitors from the plains and
travellers to Kashmir. A fine view of the snowy peaks of Kashmir is
to be had on a clear day, and the crest of Nanga Parbat (26,182 feet)
can sometimes be seen. The municipality was created in 1850. The
income during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs 49,500, and
the expendituie Rs. 48,200. In 1903-4 the income and expenditure
weie Rs. 51,400, chiefly from octroi, and Rs. 54,400 respectively. The
income and expenditure of cantonment funds averaged Rs. r 0,000
between 1893 and 1903. The chief educational institutions are the
LawTence Military Asylum for soldieis* children, and the St Denys’ and
Convent English schools for girls. The station contains the Lady Roberts
Home for invalid officers and a branch of the Alliance Bank of Simla
The Murree Brewery is the only industrial concern of any importance.

Mursan. — Estate situated in the Aligarh, Muttra, and Etah Dis-
tricts of the United Provinces, with an area of 60 square miles. The
demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was a lakh and for cesses Rs. 16,000,
while the rent-roll was 2-1 lakhs. This is the most important Jat estate
in the United Provinces. In the sixteenth or seventeenth century a Jat,
named Makan, came from Rajputana to the neighbourhood of Mursan
town, and he and his descendants acquired considerable estates, partly
by clearing waste land. The lesult was the formation of a number of
talukas or baronies, linked together by the kinship of the owners, Nand
Ram, head of the clan, submitted to Aurangzeb, when the latter had
firmly established himself, and was appointed an administrative official.
He died in 1695, leaving fourteen sons, the eldest of whom was called
Zulkaran, and predeceased his father The Jat possessions were divided
among the other children of Nand Ram ; but Zulkaran’s son, Khushal
Singh, who obtained only two villages, attracted the notice of Saadat
Khan, Nawab of Oudh, and was granted the farm of other property.
In 1749 he was succeeded by Puhup Singh, who largely increased the
estates he had inherited by obtaining from the amih leases of villages
which had fallen out of cultivation, or in which arrears of revenue were

VOL. XVIII. D

MURSAN

due. He also acquired a considerable share in the talukas left by
Nand Ram, though dispossessed for a time by Suraj Mai, Raja of
Bharatpur, and was the first of the family to assume the title of Raja.
In 1803 Bhagwant Singh, son of Puhup Singh, was allowed to engage
for payment of revenue of all the estates held by him, without any
detailed inquiiy into their internal circumstances, and retained some
independent judicial authority He also received a jdglr for services
rendered in Lord Lake’s campaign A few yeais later both Bhagwant
Singh and Daya Ram, tahiMdr of Hathras, another descendant of
Nand Ram, came into conflict with the authorities for persistent default
m the payment of revenue and defiance of the courts, and in 1817
troops were sent against them. Daya Ram at first resisted, and on
the fall of Hathras his estates were confiscated , but Bhagwant Singh
surrendered He was treated leniently, and his possessions were not
escheated, though his special police jurisdiction was cancelled. On his
death in 1823 the piocess of diiect engagement with the village pro-
prietors was commenced, and his son, Tikam Singh, lost considerably
The separation of subordinate rights was completed in the first regular
settlement, and was resisted m the courts by the Raja, but without
success Owing to his loyalty in the Mutiny, Raja Tikam Singh
received an abatement of Rs. 6,000 in his assessment, and vras also
created C.S.I. The present owner of the estate is Raja Dat Prasad
Singh, who succeeded a grandson of Tikam Singh m 1902.

The principal place in the estate is Mursan, a small town on the
Cawnpore-Achhnera Railway, with a population (1901) of 4,395,
which is administered under Act XX of 1856. A primary school
here is attended by 120 pupils.

Murshidabad District. — District of the Presidency Division, Ben-
gal, lying between 23® 43' and 24° 52' N. and 87° 49' and 88° 44' E.,
with an area of 2,143 square miles. In shape it resembles an isosceles
triangle with its apex pointing to the north-west. The northern and
eastern boundaries are formed by the Padma, or mam stream of the
Ganges, which separates it from Malda and Rajshahi; on the south-
east the Jalangi divides it from Nadia, on the south it is bounded
by Burdwan , and on the west by Birbhum and the Santal Parganas.

The Bhagirathi, which flows with many windings south-east and
south, divides the District into two tracts nearly equal in size but differ-
Physical physical features. The country to the

aspects. Bhagirathi, known as R^h, forms a con-

tinuation of the Chota Nagpur plateau, its general
level is slightly undulating and higher than that of the rest of the
District, but it is interspersed with marshes and seamed by hill torrents.
The Bagri or eastern portion forms part of the old Ganges delta, and
its river system consists of the Padma with its distributaries, the Bhagi-

MUESHIDABAD DISTRICT

RATHi, Bhairab, Sialmaii, and Jalangi The Bhaguathi, which forms
the oldest known outlet of the Ganges and marks the w^estern limit of
the delta, has undeigone great changes even m the last hundred years,
Its head has almost silted up, and it is with difficulty kept open for
navigation by small boats during the diy season. Its chief tributaries
are the Bansloi and the Pagla, which use in the Saiital Parganas, the
Chora Dekra, and the Dwarka. The Dwarka or Babla is a continuation
of the Brahmani, which rises in the Birbhum hills, and after uniting
with the Mor flo\vs eastwaids thiough the Kandi subdivision to join the
Bhaglrathi ,* like all hill streams, it is veiy rapid and liable to sudden
flood The Bhairab and Sialmaii are unimportant streams flowing into
the Jalangi; this river has a general trend to the south-west and eventu-
ally joins the Bhaglrathi in Nadia District. There aie many small
lakes, the laigest being the Telkai Bll west of Berhampore, which is
about 3 miles long and 2-| miles broad, and a laige horseshoe lake
known as Motijhll, which has been formed about 2 miles from
Murshidabad Town by a change in the course of the Bhaglrathi.

The poition of the Distiict east of the Bh^Irathi is covered with
lecent alluvium, consisting of sandy clay and sand along the course of
the rivers, and fine silt consolidating into clay in the flatter parts of the
river plain. The limit between the alluvium and the higher ground
on the west is maiked by a bank of stiff clay, giavel, and nodular lime-
stone, which disappears as it passes dowmw'ards towards Birbhum,
where it amalgamates with the geneial alluvium. In the north-west
of the Distnct aie some isolated clay hillocks.

The stretches of low-lying land under iice cultivation afford a foot-
hold for many marsh species, while the numerous ponds and ditches
are filled with submerged and floating w^ater-plants. Remarkable
among these for its raiity, and inteiestmg on account of its distri-
bution in Europe on the one hand and Australia on the other, is the
floating Aldrovanda vesiculosa. The edges of sluggish creeks are lined
with large sedges and bulrushes, and the banks of rivers have a hedge-
like scrub jungle. The sides of embankments and village sites, where
not occupied by habitations, are densely covered with shrubberies of
semi-spontaneous species, interspersed with clumps of planted bamboos
and groves of Areca, Moruiga, Mangifera^ and Anona^ while banyan
(Ficus tndica), pipal {Ficus religiosa), babul {Acacia arabica), jack
(Artocarpus iniegrifolia)^ bel {Aegle marmelos)^ plantain, and date
trees are also common. Waysides and waste places are filled with
grasses and weeds, usually of little intrinsic interest, but often striking
because of their distribution. Many of them have been inadvertently
introduced by human agency, and include European or African and
American species, which spread more plentifully than similar weeds
of indigenous origin. The District is famous for its mangoes.

D 2

murshidabAd district

Big game has disappeared before the advance of cultivation, but
leopards are occasionally met with and wild hog still abound in the
jungles.

During the hot season diy westerly winds alternate with the souther!)
sea-breezes of moderate temperature which characterize other parts of
Lower Bengal^ and the mean temperatuie, which is 79° foi the whole
year, rises from 65^ in January to 88° in Apiil, when the mean maxi-
mum is 100°. The mean minimum is lowest (53°) m January. The
annual rainfall averages 53 inches, of i^hich 9*6 fall in June, ii in July,
10 in August, and 9 in September.

The earthquake of 1897 caused great damage, especially along the
banks of the Bhagirathi river, where the old masonry buildings in the
riparian towns suffered enormously. The cost of repairs to public
property was estimated to exceed 2 lakhs, and the damage to private
property at 50 lakhs. Discharges of water and black mud occurred
from the bed of the Bhagirathi near Jangipur, and sand and water were
also thiown up from fissures m the maishy land near Gaur and Jalangl,
one fissure extending for a length of 2 miles. The District is liable to
annual inundation, and serious floods are only prevented by numerous
and expensive embankments. In 1870 the embankments of the Bhagi-
rathi were breached, and a disastrous flood occurred which destroyed
the crops over a large area and caused great suffering. In 1886 the
town of Murshidabad was inundated and thousands of people left
destitute. The Dwarka is liable to sudden floods ; and a tract of low-
lying country about 16 miles in extent at the confluence of the Moi
and Dwarka rivers in the Kandi subdivision, known as Hejal, is inun-
dated more or less heavily almost every year

In ancient times the Bhagirathi formed an important political boun-
dary. To the east lay Banga or Samatata and to the west Karna
H istory Suvarna, whose capital was probably at or near
Rangamati Under the Sen kings the river separated
the Rarh from the Bagri division of Bengal, traces of which remain
in the name Bagdi. The country was conquered in 1197 by Muham-
mad i-Bakhtyar Khiljl, and formed part of the dominions of the Muham-
madan kings of Gaur. In the middle of the seventeenth century
factories were founded at Cossimbazar, at that time the head-quarters
of the silk trade, but the political importance of the District dates from
the early part of the eighteenth century, w^hen Murshid Kuli Khan
moved the seat of government from Dacca to the little town of Maksud-
abad, thenceforth called after him, where he built a palace. Historical
interest centres in Murshidabad, Cossimbazar, and Berhampore.
Other places of archaeological importance are Badrihat and Ranga-
niati. When a Collector was first appointed to the charge of the
District in 1772, its area extended over the neighbouring zaminddris

POPULATION

of Biibhutn and Bishnupur. These outlying tracts had always been
noted for lawlessness ^ and for the better administration of justice they
were finally severed from Murshidabad in 1787. The District was
thus reduced to about its present size, but the irregulanty of the boun-
dary between it and Birbhum has been a constant source of perplexity
to the local officials. In 1875 the District was transferred from the
Rajshahi to the Presidency Division.

The population, which in 1872 numbered 1,214,104, increased to
1,226,790 in 1881, to 1,250,946 in 1891, and to 1,333,184 in 1901
The increase between 1872 and 1891 was very small, ulation

owing to the ravages of the ‘ Burdwan fever, ^ which
devastated not only the low-lying waterlogged eastern tracts but also
the elevated country to the west. In recent years there has been
a great improvement in the health of the District, especially in the
Rarh country. To the east, however, the climate is damp, and malaria
is still prevalent, cholera is rarely absent, and enlargement of the
spleen and liver is almost universal. Elephantiasis and hydrocele are
endemic. The table below gives statistics of the population by sub-
divisions in 1901 —

Subdivision

Area in square
miles

Number of

Population

Population per
square mile

Percentage of
\ ariation in
population be
tween 1891
and igoi

Number of
persons able to
read and
write

Towns

Villages

Berhampore

753

1,060

471,962

628

+ 3 7

2J.853

Lalbagh .

370

632

192.978

523

+ 6-2

11,292

Jangipur .

509

I7O93

. 334 ji 9 t

657

+ 54

16.935

Kandi

512

883

334,053

652

+ 124

22.376

District total

2 ,H 3

3,668

1.333.184

622

+ 66

73.476

The towns are Berhampore, the head-quarters, Murshidabad,
Azimganj, Jangipur, and Kandi. The alluvial tract to the east of
the Bhagirathi is much more densely populated than the west of the
District. In the latter tract, howevei, the population is now growing
rapidly, the increase at the Census of 1901 amounting to 12*9 per cent,
compared with 3-1 per cent, in the east of the District, and rising as
high as 26 per cent, in the Sagardighi and Kalianganj thdnas, which
are still sparsely populated and attract a large number of immigrants
from Birbhum and the Santal Parganas. The District suffers from
diluvion along the northern boundary, and there has consequently
been some loss of inhabitants by migration to the corresponding
alluvial formations in Malda and Rajshahi on the other side of the
Padma. There is a good deal of tempoiary immigration from Bihar
and the United Provinces, especially during the winter months. The

MURSHIDiBAD DISTRICT

vernacular of the District is the dialect known as Central Bengali.
Muhammadans (676,899) in 1901 outnumbered the Hindus (643,474),
having increased from 48-1 per cent, of the population in 1881 to
50-8 per cent in the latter year. Hindus, however, still predominate
to the west of the Bhagirathi

Most of the Muhammadans aie Shaikhs (628,000). Among the
Hindus the most numerous castes are Kaibarttas (95,000) ; Bagdis
(40,000), chiefly in the south-west; Sadgops (39,000), chiefly in the
southern ihdfias , Chains (38,000), along the south-east ; Brahmans,
Ahirs, and Goalas. Agiicultuie supports 58 per cent, of the popula-
tion, industiies 19-3 per cent, commerce 06 per cent, and the pro-
fessions 1*8 per cent.

Christians number only 391, of whom 249 are natives. Various
missions have established themselves m the District from time to time,
but they have not met with much success. The only one now is a
branch of the London Missionary Society, which began work in 1824.

The low-lying alluvial soil to the east is very fertile ; the chief ciop
IS the autumn rice, but it also grows several important cold-season

Agriculture.

crops On the hard clay of the Rarh tract d?nan or
winter iice is the mam staple, though sugar-cane,

mulberry, tobacco, and vanous vegetables aie likewise grown.

The chief agricultural statistics for 1903-4 are shown below, areas

being in square miles —

It IS estimated that 30 per cent of the cultivated area is twice
cropped. Rice is grown over an area of 723 square miles, the winter
rice covering 34 per cent, of the net cropped area against 28 per cent,
under autumn rice. About 167 square miles are under wheat and
95 square miles under bailey. Other crops extensively cultivated are
gram and other pulses and oilseeds, linseed and mustard being the
most important kinds. Jute, sugar-cane, indigo, and mulberry are
grown, but the cultivation of both indigo and mulberry is now declining.
Little use is made of the Agricultunsts’ Loans Act ; in the two years
ending 1898 Rs. 40,000 was advanced

Pastuie land is plentiful all over the District The chief grazing
ground is a tract of low country^ in the Kandi subdivision, about
16 miles in area, kno\\m as Hejal ; this is covered with water during

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS

the rains, but in the dry season it affords splendid pasturage Cattle
fairs are held at Panchamdi and Talibpur m the Kandi subdivision,
and occasionally at Bhabta in the head-quarters subdivision.

The necessity for irrigation is limited to the west of the District,
where water is conducted over the fields from tanks or natural i\ater-
courses. A large number of tanks are used for this purpose in the
Manigram Government estate.

Peail fisheries exist in a series of lakes which mark the line of an old
liver and stretch from the Gobra nullah to Rukimpur, a distance of
about 38 miles. The mussel in which the pearls are Fisheries
found IS a species of and is probably a variety
of the pearl-bearing Unto margariiifera The majority of the pearls
are seed pearls, and they have usually a golden tint. Valuable pearls
are occasionally procured, fetching as much as Rs 200 each , but such
a find is very rare, and the largest pearls found in recent years rarely
exceed Rs 15 or Rs 30 in value. The fishery season is in the hot
months, when the water is low and almost stagnant. The various
branches of the industry furnish employment for about 300 persons
during this period, and its annual value is estimated at Rs 3,000.

Iron is found, but not in sufficient quantities to repay smelting
Calcareous earth occuis in several places and is extensively used foi
making lime. Kankar or nodular limestone crops up generally over
the western half of the District, and is used for roadmiakmg

The silk industry in this part of Bengal is of great age, and the silk
trade is one of the earliest of the industries which occupied the servants
of the East India Company in the District, their
efforts being stimulated by competition with the coS^wtions.
French, Dutch, and Armenians. Silk factories date
from the middle of the seventeenth century, when Cossimbazar was the
most important centre. The winding of silk is still earned on, but it
has steadily declined since the Company closed their factory at Jangi-
pur in 1835. The decline is due in a great measure to diseases of the
worms, which the Bengal Silk Association, constituted in 1898, is now
taking steps to combat. There is a nursery at Chandanpur which dis-
tributes large quantities of selected seed to the rearers , similar nuisenes
are being built at Rajdharpur and Kumarpur, and the use of examined
seed is spreading in the Government estates west of the Bhagirathi.

Silk IS still largely manufactured in the head-quarters and Jangipur
subdivisions , a great variety of fabrics are manufactured. The best
silks ai'e those produced in the Mirzapur, Hariharpara, and Daulat
Bazar thdnas , in 1903-4^6 Mirzapur weavers turned out 26,000 yards
of silk cloth, valued at Rs. 33,000. In addition to the native artisans
working with hand-looms, there were in that year 54 factories worked
with machinery which had an out-turn of 396,000 lb., valued at nearly

murshidabad district

27 lakhs, the principal firms being Messrs. Louis Payen & Co. and the
Bengal Silk Company. Tasar and matkd silks are also manufactured,
the latter being best prepared by Indian weavers on their hand-looms
Cotton-weaving with hand-looms is still an important occupation, and
silk and cotton dyeing are earned on by a few families at Khagra
Balucharand Mirzapur. Murshidabad town has skilled embroiderei s,
who adorn clothes, gloves, slippers, and caps with gold and silver lace.
Gold and silver wire is also made in small quantities. Btdri ware is
produced by a few workmen at Murshidabad , the process consists in
inlaying with silver a soit of pewter which is blackened with sulphate
of copper. Bell-metal and brass utensils of a superior kind are manu-
factured in large quantities at Khagra, Berhampore, Kandi, and Bara-
nagar ; these articles are sold m the local markets and are also exported.
Locks, nails, and betel-nut cutters are made at Dhulian. Ivory-carving
was formerly a considerable industry, but is now confined to a few
workmen at Murshidabad. Blankets, shell bracelets, and pottery are
manufactured in a few villages, and musical instruments and hukka
pipes are also made. The mdigo industry has practically disappeared,
the out-turn in 1903-4 having fallen to 13 tons.

The external trade is mainly with Calcutta. The chief imports are
European piece-goods, salt, coal and coke, and kerosene oil , and the
chief exports are rice, wheat, gram, oilseeds, jute, silk, indigo, and
metal ware. The District is favourably situated for trade, being served
by two offshoots of the Padma, the Bhaglrathi and the JalangT, which
form the Hooghly and lead direct to Calcutta. The principal seats of
trade are Jangipur, Azimganj, Jiaganj, Khagra, and Dhulian on the
Bhaglrathi, and Bhagw angola on the Ganges. Trade is carried on
chiefly at permanent markets, and periodical fairs are also held at
Dhulian, Jangipur, Chaltia, Suktipur, and K^di. The Jain merchants
of Azimganj are among the richest traders in Bengal.

The little railway from Nalhati to Azimganj runs for about 14 miles
within the District. The Murshidabad branch of the Eastern Bengal
State Railway, which has recently been opened, leaves the main
line at R^aghat and enters the District near Plassey, whence it runs
nearly due north through Beldanga, Berhampore, Murshidabad, and
Jiaganj to Lalgola. There is also a proposal to bridge the Bhaglrathi
between Jiaganj and Murshidabad, and to connect the new line with
the East Indian Railway system. The District board maintains 33
miles of metalled and 526 miles of unmetalled roads, with 335 bridges
and 22 ferries. The most important roads are those connecting Ber-
hampore, the head-quarters station, with Krishnagar, Bhagwangola,
Patkabari, Kandi, and JalangT ; Murshidabad with Panchgram j and
Jarur with Gambhira.

Steamer services ply up the Padma from Goalundo throughout the

ADMINISTRA TION

year, and the other big rivers are navigable by large country boats,
except during the latter part of the dry season ; for the rest of the year
the Calcutta Steam Navigation Company maintains a regular steamer
service up the Bhagirathi from Calcutta. The measures which have
been taken from time to time to keep this liver and the Jalangi open
for traffic are described m the article on the Nadia Rivers. In
1903-4 about Rs. 41,000 was realized as tolls, while the expenditure
in keeping the channels open amounted to Rs. 44,000.

The famine of 1770 is believed to have carried off three-eighths of
the population of this District. In 1870 some distress was caused by
high prices, and severe scarcity was felt in 1874 and ^

1897. On the latter occasion Government expended
Rs 73,000 on famine relief, and was aided by the munificence ' of local
zamlnddrs headed by the late Maharani Sarnamayl, C.L The aggre-
gate number of units relieved, reckoned in terms of one day, was
454 , 000 -

Foi administrative purposes the District is divided into four sub-
divisions, with head-quarters at Berhampore, Jangipur, Kandi, and
Lalbagh. The Magistrate-Collector is assisted at • • •

head-quarters by a staff of four Deputy-Magistrate- ation.

Collectors and occasionally by a Joint or Assistant Magistrate. The
subdivisional officers at Kandi, Lalbagh, and Jangipur belong to the
Provincial service recruited in India, and are assisted by Sub-Deputy-
Collectors. The Executive Engineer in charge of the Nadia Rivers
division is stationed at Berhampore.

Subordinate to the District and Sessions Judge for the disposal of
civil judicial work are a Subordinate Judge at head-quarters and seven
Munsifs, of whom two each are stationed at Berhampore, Jangipur, and
K^di, and one at Lalbagh. The criminal courts include those of the
Judge, the District Magistrate, and the above-mentioned magistrates.
The most common offences are those which arise out of disputes
about land.

In Todar Mai’s rent-roll of 1582 the present District area formed
portion of Audambar or Tanda, Satgaon, and other sarhdrs. In Jafai
Kh^’s settlement of 1722 the name MurshidabM was applied to an
area apparently coextensive with the great zamlnddri of Rani Bhawani,
properly known as Rajshahi. It is therefore impossible to compare
the present land revenue of the District with that realized under
Muhammadan rule. The whole of the District is permanently settled,
with the exception of 72 temporarily settled estates with a current
demand of Rs. 30,000, and 64 estates with a demand of Rs. 26,000
held direct by Government. The average incidence of rental is Rs.
3-1-5 per cultivated acie, but rents differ widely in various parts, being
lowest in the head-quarters and Jangipur subdivisions, and highest in

murshidabad district

the Kandi subdivision, where rice and wheat lands bring in from
Rs. 7-8 to Rs. 18, and mulberry and sugar-cane lands from Rs. 12
to Rs 24 per acre. In the head-quarters subdivision, on the other
hand, the rent of rice and wheat lands ranges between Rs. 1-2 and
Rs. 9, that of land growing pulse between Rs. 2-4 and Rs 3, sugar-
cane land between Rs. 3 and Rs 7-8, and mulberry land between
Rs. 1-12 and Rs. 12 per acre.

The iiihandi system of tenuie is very common, especially in the
Plassey pargana , for a description of this tenure see the article on
Nadia District. Aimmds or quit-rent tenures are numerous in the
Fateh Singh estate. The average area of a tenant’s holding is only
one acre.

The following table shows the collections of land revenue and of
total revenue (principal heads only), in thousands of rupees . —

1880-1*

1890-1

I 900-1

1903-4

Land revenue .

Total revenue .

13,05

18,12

10,68

10,66

17.78

10,67

17.96

* Between i88o--i and 1890-1, certain estates were transferred from Murshid-
aba.d to other Districts

Outside the municipalities of Berhampore, Azimganj, Jangipur,
Kandi, and Murshidabad, local affairs are managed by the Distnct
board, with subordinate local boards in each subdivision. The income
of the District board m 1903-4 was Rs. 1,27,000, of which Rs. 64,000
was derived from rates. The expenditure was also Rs. 1,27,000,
including Rs. 69,000 spent on public works and Rs 25,000 on educa-
tion. A scheme for supplying the rural areas with drmking- water is in
progress, this was initiated by a gift of a lakh from Raja Jogendra
Narayan Rao of Lalgola.

There are 74 miles ot embankments along the Bhagirathi, under
the Public Works department, to prevent the country on the east
bank from being flooded by the spill of the river. The propriety of
maintaining these embankments has been called in question, on the
ground that the land which would otherwise be flooded is thereby
deprived of its supply of fertilizing silt, while the river, being confined
to its bed, deposits its silt there, and thus gradually raises itself above
the level of the surrounding country.

Murshidabad contains 24 police stations and 26 outposts, and in
1903 the force subordinate to the District Superintendent consisted
of 4 inspectors, 53 sub-inspectors, 51 head constables, and 675 con-
stables In addition, there is a rural police of 264 daffaddrs and 2,947
chm^klddrs The District jail at Berhampore has accommodation for
340 prisoners, and subsidiary jails at the three subdivisional out-
stations have accommodation for 62.

MURSHIDABAD TOWN

In spite of the proximity of the District to Calcutta, only 5.5 per
cent, of the population (10 6 males and o 6 females) could read and
write in 1901. The total number of pupils under instruction incieased
from 12,000 in 1883 to 22,994 in 1892-3, and 24,837 in 1900-1. In
1903-4, 24,015 boys and 1,531 girls were at school, being respectively
24 5 and 1*5 per cent, of the children of school-going age. The number
of educational institutions, public and private, in that year was 661,
including one Arts college, 58 secondary, 582 primary, and 20 special
schools The expenditure on education was 2-17 lakhs, of which
Rs. 44,000 was met fiom Provincial funds, Rs. 25,000 from District
funds, Rs 2,000 from municipal funds, and Rs. 84,000 from fees.
The principal institutions are the college and Sanskrit tol at Berham-
pore, and the Nawab’s madrasa and high school at Murshidabad.
The London Missionary Society maintains a high school at Khagra
near Berhampore

In 1903 the District contained 7 dispensanes, of which 5 had accom-
modation for 1 15 in-patients. The cases of 65,000 out-patients and
1,335 in-patients were tieated during the year, and 3,320 operations
were performed. The expenditure was Rs. 27,000, of which Rs. 2,000
was met by Government contributions, Rs. 3,000 from Local and
Rs. 11,000 from municipal funds, and Rs. 3,000 from subscriptions.
The hospital at Kandi, which is maintained from an endowment fund,
now amounting to 1*59 lakhs, left by Kumar Gins Chandra Sinha of
Paikpara, is the best equipped in the District. There is a lunatic
asylum at Berhampore.

Vaccination is compulsory only in the municipal towns. In 1903-4
the number of successful vaccinations was 37,000, representing 36 per
1,000 of the population

[Sir W. W. Hunter, Statistical Account of Bengal^ vol. hi (1876);
Beveridge, ‘Note on the Parganas of Murshidabad,’ Proceedings of the
Asiatic Society (1892) , Major Walsh, I.M S., History of Murshidabad
(1902) , G C. Dutt, Monograph on Ivory Carving in Bengal (Calcutta,
1901) , N. G. Mukerjl, Monograph on the Silk Fabrics of Bengal
(Calcutta, 1903), P C. Majumdar, The Musnud of Murshidabad
(Murshidabad, 1905).]

Murshidabad Subdivison. — Subdivision of Murshidabad District,
Bengal. See Lalbagh

Murshidabad Town. — Head-quarters of the Lalbagh subdivision
of Murshidabad District, Bengal, situated in 24*^ 12' N. and 88° 17' E.,
on the left bank of the Bhagirathi. The town, which possesses great
histoiical interest, was formerly known as Makhsusabad or Maksudabad,
and is stated by Tieffen thaler to have been founded by the emperor
Akbar. In 1696 the Afghans from Orissa in the course of their rebel-
lion defeated the imperial troops and plundered the place. In 1704

MURSHIDABAD TOWN

Nawab Murshid Kuli Khan moved the seat of government from Dacca
to Maksudabad, which he then called, after himself, Murshidabad \ the
old name, however, still lingeis, and the spelling Muxudavad is found
in the early English records as late as 1760. Tradition relates that
Murshid Kull Khan moved his government to this place through fear
of prince Azim-ush-shan, who had attempted to assassinate him at
Dacca. It seems more probable that he was induced to do so by
political considerations. Dacca had lost its importance, for the Maghs
and the Portuguese were no longer dangerous, and the banks of the
Bhaglrathi afforded a more central position for the management of the
three provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The new city was also
situated on the mam line of communication between the Upper Ganges
valley and the sea, along which the treasures of India were now begin-
nmg to find their way to the European settlements on the Hooghly,
and it commanded the town of Cossimbazar, where all the foreigners
had important factories. Moreover, the situation in those days was
regarded as very healthy. Murshid Kull Khan, by birth a Brahman
and by education a courtier, was one of the most able administrators
that ever served the Mughal empire in time of peace. Second only to
the Naw^ab in establishing the importance of Murshidabad was the
Jain banker, Manik Chand Jagat Seth, by whose predominating influence
as a financier the residence of the governor became also the centre of
the revenue collections for Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.

The dynasty founded by Murshid Kull Khan did not continue in
the direct line beyond two generations. All Vardi Khan won the
governorship by conquest in 1740. Troublous times followed; m
1742 Maratha invaders sent by the Bhonsla Raja of Berar plundered
the suburbs of Murshidabad and obtained a booty of 3 lakhs from Jagat
Seth. In the next year two separate' armies of Marathas came, and
All Vardi avoided battle only by playing off one chief against the other,
and at last got rid of the stronger by paying a large sum of money.
From this date till 1751, when he ceded to the Marathas the province
of Orissa and agreed to pay an annual tax of 12 lakhs. All Vardi was
continually pressed by both the Marathas and the Afghans. He w^as
succeeded in 1756 by his grandson Siraj-ud-daula, who in the following
year captured the English factory at Cossimbazar. During this period
the city itself never suffered either from domestic or foreign war. Each
successive prince, after the Eastern fashion, built for himself one or
more new palaces ; and the great family of Jagat Seth preserved then
position as State bankers from generation to generation. On entering
Murshidabad after the victory of Plassey, Colonel Clive wrote

‘ This city is as extensive, populous, and rich as the city of London,
with this difference, that there are individuals in the first possessing
infinitely greater property than in the last city.’

murshidabAd town

Even after the conquest of Bengal by the British, Murshidabad
remained for some time the seat of administiation. Plassey was
fought in 1757, just beyond the present southern limits of Murshidabad
District, but that battle was not regarded at the time as interfering
with the Muhammadan government, beyond the substitution of a
subservient Nawab for the savage Siraj-ud-daula. The only apparent
result was that the Commercial Chief of the factory at Cossimbazar was
superseded by a Political Resident to the Darbar, who took up his
quarters nearer the city, at Motijhll {‘ the pearl lake ’), in the palace
of a former Nawab. In 1765 the East India Company received the
grant of the Dlwani or financial administration of Bengal, Bihar, and
Orissa from the Mughal emperor, Shah Alam, as the prize of the
\ictory at Buxar , and in the following year Lord Clive, as Governor
of Bengal, presided m person at the pmya 01 annual settlement of the
levenues. But even on this occasion the young Nawab sat on the
?nasnad^ with the Governor on his right hand. The entire work of
government still remained, without serious check or supervision,
m the hands of the Muhammadan officials ; and Jagat Seth continued
to be the State bankei. The first great reform was effected in 1772 by
Warren Hastings, who removed the supreme civil and criminal courts
from Murshidabad to Calcutta. After an experience of three years,
the tribunal of criminal justice was retransferred to Murshidabad , and
It was not till 1790, under Lord Cornwallis, that the entire revenue and
judicial staff was ultimately fixed at the present capital of India. The
mint was abolished in 1799. About the same date, the civil head-
‘ quarters of the District weie transferred to Berhampore, which had
been from the first the site of the military cantonment. Murshidabad
city was thus left only as the residence of the Nawab Nazim, a descen-.
dant of Mir Jafar, who till 1882 retained certain marks of sovereignty
within his palace, and received a pension of 16 lakhs a year. The last
holder of the title was for many years resident in England. On his
return to India, he abdicated his position in favour of his son, who
succeeded him, but without any sovereign rights, and on a diminished
pension. The title of the present descendant of the once independent
rulers of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa is now simply that of Nawab
Bahadur of Murshidabad

With the loss of its political importance the size and population of
Murshidabad also declined. The largest dimensions of the city proper
m 1759 said to have been 5 miles along the Bhagirathi in length
and 2*1 miles in breadth on each bank of the river, while the circum-
ference of Its extensive suburbs has been put as high as 30 miles. In
the beginning of the nineteenth century, by which time the decay of
the city had already set in, we have several estimates of the population;
but we know neither the area wLich the city was then supposed to

MURSHIDABAD TOWN

cover, nor the modes of enumeration adopted. In 1815 the number
of houses was estimated at 30,000, and the total population at 165,000
souls. In 1829 the Magistrate, Mr. Hawthorn, returned the population
at 146,176. In 1837 Mr Adam found the inhabitants of Murshidabad
city to amount to 124,804 persons, which shows a decrease of nearly
15 per cent, in eight years. At the time of the first regulai Census
in 1872 the population of the town was 46,182, and it has since still
further diminished In 1901, excluding its subuib Azimg\nj, which
was formed into a separate municipality m 1896, its inhabitants
numbered only 15,168.

Murshidabad exhibits at the present day but few traces of its foimer
grandeur. The chief object of attiaction is the palace of the Nawab
Bahadur on the banks of the Bhagirathi This is an imposing pile
of buildings in the Italian style, designed by Colonel Macleod of
the Bengal Engineers, but executed entirely by natives and finished
in 1837. The edifice itself is called the Hazar Duari, or ‘house
of one thousand doois,’ and together with other buildings enclosed
within the same wall is known as the Nizamat Kila or fort. The palace
is 425 feet long, 200 feet wide, and 80 feet high The ground floor
is of stone, the first floor of marble, and the second floor of wood.
The banqueting hall is 191 feet long and 55 feet wide In the centre
of the building is a dome, from which hangs a superb chandelier of
no branches. The palace contains many rare old pictures, costly
jewellery, china, and arms. The residences of the Nawab Bahadur
and the members of the Nizamat family are a^ series of one-stoieyed
buildings, devoid of beauty and unsafe to live in.

The Imambara (house of prayer), which was built directly in front
of the northern principal door in the year 1847, is a fine structure,
considerably larger than the Imambara at Hooghly. It stands on
the site of a more celebrated building erected by Siraj-ud-daula, which
was accidentally burnt down in 1840.

About miles to the east of the palace is the Topkhana, the site of
the artillery park of the Nawab Nazim, and the east entrance to the
old city. Here is a large gun, 17^ feet long with a girth of 5 feet at the
breech, weighing 2\ maunds, which was made at Dacca during the
reign of Shah Jahan. The gun is now embedded m a plpal-tr^e^ which
has lifted it many feet above the ground. In the palace armoury is
another gun, cast by Kishor Das Karmakar, formerly the property
of Maharaja Krishna Chandra Rai of Nadia.

One and a half miles south-east of the palace is the Motijhil (‘ pearl
^ lake’), built in an old bed of the Bhagirathi, in the shape of a
horseshoe, by Nawazish Muhammad Khan, nephew and son-m-law
of All Vardi Khan, who, with materials brought from the ruins of Gaur,
built a stone hall (Sangi-Dalan), Mahalsarai (harem), a mosque and

MURSHIDABAD TOWN

out-offices, and lived here with his beautiful wife, Ghaseti Begani.
Motijhll was taken by Siraj-ud-daula in 1756 on the death of Nawazish
Muhammad, and it was from here that he marched for the battle
-•of Plassey. Mir Jafar built a gai den-house heie m 1758 Lord Clive
stayed at Motijhil m 1765 to ne^tiate the transfer of the Diwani to the
Company, and again in 1766, when the hist English piinyd or levenue
collection was held here. Motijhil was also the residence of Wairen
Hastings when he became Political Resident at the court of Muishid-
afiad, and of Sir John Shoie m a similar capacity

A mosque at Katra to the north-east of Motijhil, about if miles
from the town of Muishidabad, contains the mausoleum of Murshid
KulT Khan. This was for a long time the chief mosque of the citj^,
and was. a place of pilgiimage for devout Muhammadans, Murshid
Kull Khan being regarded as a saint
Jafarganj, situated at a distance of about a mile from the palace at
Murshidabad, contains the old residence of Mir Jafar when he was
commander-in-chief. His audience hall, since tuined into an Imto-
bara, and his dwelling-house still exist. Here the last seciet confeience
before the battle of Plassey took place between him and Mr Watts, the
chief factor at Cossimbazai, who entered the house in a palanquin as
^ pardirjshln woman. It is said that Siraj-ud-daula was murdered here.

The Mubarak Manzil is a garden-house 2f miles south-east of the
palace j the main buildings and the out-offices were built by the East
India Company, and the Sadar Diwani Adalat was held here from
1765 to 1781. Nawab Humayun Jah bought these buildings in the
year 1831, and converted them, together with extensive adjoining
lands, into a gai den-house now known as the Lai Bangala (‘red bunga-
low’). On the terrace stood the thione of the Subahd^s of Bengal,
which was made in 1 643 at Monghyr , it is a round table of black
stone 6 feet in diameter and 18 inches high, with four thick pedestals,
the whole hewn out of one block. This has been removed to Calcutta,
where it is to find a place in the Victoria Memorial Hall
About 2 miles north of the city of Murshidabad is Mahimapur,
once the residence of the famous banker Jagat Seth. Here Watts
and Walsh met Mir Jafar and Raja Rai Durlabh, thiee days after the
battle of Plassey, and conferied concerning payment of the amounts
stipulated for by them before the battle was fought, Clive, Watts,
Scrafton, Meeian, and Rai Durlabh were again present here on June
29 j i 757 j when Clive repudiated the agreement with Umichand. A
portion of the house has been washed away by the river , the old place
of worship, however, and‘ some ruins remain to this day.

Oh the right bank of the river opposite Motijhil is the “Khushbagh
(‘the garden of happiness’), the old cemetery of Ali Vardi Khan,
Siraj-ud-daula, and their family. It consists of three walled enclosures,

58 MURSHIBABAD TOWN

in the centre of which is the principal cemetery, containing the tombs
of All Vardi Khan and Siraj-ud-daula. The grounds are laid out as
gardens with hedges bordering the walks, and contain many fine
trees. On the same side of the river, opposite Jafarganj, are the pleasure-
grounds of Hlrajhil lake of diamonds ’), and the palace at Mansurganj
constructed by Siraj-ud-daula before he became Nawab. It vras at
T^Iansurganj palace that Clive seated Mir Jafar on the masfiad of
Bengal after the battle of Plassey. Near this was the palace of MurM-
bagh, where Clive stayed on his entrance into the city after the battle
Only a portion of the foundation remams, and the gi eater portion of the
Hlrajhil has been cut away by the Bhagirathi. Also on the same side
of the river is the Roshnibagh, consisting of beautiful gardens contain-
ing the mausoleum of Shuja Khan, Murshid Kull Khan^s son-in-law
and successor.

The principal industries of MurshidabM are those fostered by the
luxui y of the native court. Carving in ivory is an old speciality of the
place, and the artificers, though now few in number, still produce
highly finished woik. Other manufactures are the embroideiy of
fancy articles with gold and silver lace, the weaving of silk goods,
and the making of musical instruments and hukkas.

Murshidabad was constituted a municipality in 1869. The income
during the decade ending 1 901-2 averaged Rs. 24,000 and the ex-
penditure Rs. 23,000. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 19,000, of which
Rs. 5,500 was obtained from a tax on persons; and the expenditure
was Rs. 18,000. The official name for Murshidabad is Lalbagh as the
head-quarters of the L^bagh subdivision, and it contains subdivisional
offices, a sub-jail with accommodation for 12 prisoners, and a dispensary
with 22 beds. The most important educational institutions are the
Nawab’s madrasa^ intended exclusively for the relatives of the Nawab
Bahadur, and the Nizamat high school mamtamed by the Nawab.

Murtazapur Taluk . — Taluk of Akola District, Berar (to which it
was transferred from Amraoti District in August, 1905), lying between
20° 26' and 20° 53' N. and 77° 18' and 77° 47' E., with an aiea of
610 square miles. The population fell from 121,657 in 1891 to
118,022 in 1901. The density is 193 persons per square mile. The
taluk contains 260 villages and two towns, Murtazapur (population,
6,156), the head-quarters, and Karanja Bibi (16,535). demand

for land revenue m 1903-4 was Rs. 4,11,000, and for cesses Rs. 33,000.
The taluk lies almost entirely in the Payanghat, the fertile valley of
Berar, but the extreme south extends to the slopes of the southern
plateau.

Murtazapur Town. — Head-quarters of the taluk of the same name
m Akola District, Berar, situated in 20® 44' N. and 77® 25'' E , on the
Nagpui branch of the Great Indian Penmsula Railway, 386 miles from

mll^aftrkttana

Bombay. Population (1901), 6,156. Mintazapin, piobably named
after Muitaza Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar, has outstripped the neigh-
bouring village of Sirson, which in the days of Akbar was the head-
quarters of the fargana, T.arge quantities of cotton are sent here from
Karanja and otbei places for carriage to Bombay, and the town has
seven cotton-presses and ten ginning factoiies.

Murwara Tahsil. — Noithern tah^ll oi Jubbulpoie Distiict, Central
Provinces, lying between 23° 36' and 24° 8' N. and 79° 58' and 80°
58'' E., with an area of 1,196 squaie miles. The population decreased
from 173,308 in 1891 to 161,673 in 1901. The density in the latter
year was 135 persons pei squaie mile, which is considerably below the
Distiict average The tahsil contains one town, Murwara (popula-
tion, 14,137), the head-quaiteis ; and 516 inhabited villages. Exclud-
ing 137 square miles of Government forest, 66 per cent, of the available
area is occupied for cultivation. The cultivated aiea in 1903-4 was
607 squaie miles The demand foi land levenue in the same yeai was
Rs. 1,29,000, and foi cesses Rs. 14,000. The countiy is broken and
uneven, being occupied by outlying spuis of the Vindhyan and Satpura
langes The north-easlein portion, foiming pait of the Bijeiaghogarh
pargana^ is the most feitile. In contiadistinction to the rest of the
Distiict, the pievalent soil is sandy, and autumn crops aie piincipally
giown.

Murwara Town. — Head-quarteis of the tahsil of the same name
in Jubbulpore District, Central Provinces, situated in 23° 50' N. and
80° 24' E., 56 miles fiom Jubbulpore city by rail. The station foi
Murwara is Katnl junction, so called from the river Katni on which the
town stands. Population (1901), 14,137. The town is rapidly growing
in impoitance, and is one of the leading goods^ stations on the East
Indian Railway, Murwaia was created a municipality m 1874. The
municipal receipts during the decade ending 1901 averaged Rs 9,100
In 1903-4 the leceipts were Rs. 10,000, chiefly derived from a house
tax and brokers’ fees Sixteen lime factoiies are situated near Murwara,
in which the large local deposits of limestone are burned, employing
some 2,500 labouieis. Besides, a numbei of sandstone quarries and
a fullei’s earth quariy aie worked, and mills have been established foi
the manufacture of paint These, as well as eight small flour-mills, are
worked by water-power fioni the Katnl river The town contains an
English middle school and a Zanana Mission gnls’ school, besides
branch schools and a dispensary.

Musafirkhana. — North-western tahsil of Sultanpur District, United
Provinces, comprising the parganas of Jagdispur, Gaura Jamon, IsaulT,
and Musafirkhana, and lying between 26° 13' and 26° 40"^ N. and 8r°
32' and 81° 59' E., with an area of 397 square miles. Population
increased from 251,221 in 1891 to 261,036 in 1901. There are

VOL. XVIII. R

Go MUSAFIRKHANA

434 \illages, but no town. The demand for land re\enue in 1903-4
was Rs. 3,51,000, and for cesses Rs 57,000. The density of popula-
tion, 658 persons per square mile, is slightly above the District aveiage
Fart of the noithern boundary is formed by the Gumtl, which then
crosses the iahsil^ and occasionally causes heavj' floods. The banks of
this river, and of its small tributary the Kandu, aie cut up by ravines ;
but a short distance away the soil becomes more fertile. In 1903-4
the area undei cultivation was 23 t square miles, of which 96 were irri-
gated. Wells aie the most important source of supply.

Musa Khel. — Tahsil of the Musa Khel-Barkhan subdivision, in
the north-eastern coiner of I.oralai District, Baluchistan, situated
between 30® 17' and 31° 28' N and 69° 28' and 70° 15' E Its area
IS 2,213 square miles, and population (1901) 15,537 , the land re\enue
m T 903-4 amounted to Rs. 24,000 The head-quarters station is Musa
Khel Bazai , the only othei place w'oith mention is Drug (population,
586). Fifty-four othei Milages are shown on the levenue lolls, but they
seldom contain any peimanent houses. Cultivation is in its infancy,
and cattle-giazing is the chief occupation, the pastuic grounds aiound
Khajuri affording much foddei.

Musa Khel-Barkhan. — Subdivision of Loialai Distnct, Baluchistan,
comprising the two iahslh bearing the same names.

Musi. — Rivei of Hydeiabad State, rising in the Anantagiri hills in
the Patlilr taluk of the Atraf-i-balda District It flow^s almost due east
for a distance of 112 miles, w’hen it receives the Alei on the left, neai
Chittfir, and thence flow’’s in a south-easterly diiection until it falls into
the Kistna, after a total couise of about 150 miles Several channels
have been made at diffeient parts of the course of this iiver, w^hich
act as feeders for large tanks or supply direct irrigation The city of
Hyderabad stands on its right bank

Musiri Subdivision. — Subdivision of Trichinopoly District, Madras,
consisting of the Musiri and Kulittalai taluks .

Musiri Taluk. — Taluk in Trichinopoly District, Madras, lying be-
tween 10° 54' and 11° 23' N. and 78° 10' and 78° 52' E., with an area of
762 square miles. The population rose from 282,619 in 1891 to 294,383
in 1901 The tdhik contains one town, Turaiyur (population, 12,870),
and 156 villages The demand for land revenue and cesses in 1903-4
amounted to Rs. 5,02,000. The taluk is bounded on the south by the
Cauvery river. The Pachaimalai Hills occupy the northern part, and
the Kollaimalais, which he entirely within Salem District, form the
boundary at the north-w^est cornel. South-west of the Kollaimalais
is a detached hill, the Talamalai, which is a prominent object in the
landscape, and commands a fine view. An attempt w^as once made to
make it a hot-season residence for the Collectors of Ti ichmopoly.
Tlieie IS another small hill (Tiiuvengimalai) about 3 miles to the west

VUSSOORIE

of Musin, fiom the lop of which a good panoiama ot the Cauveiy valley
can be obtained. The "I'uiaiyui ::ajni?ida7‘i lies m this The

Kattuputtui miltah m the south-westei n coinei is the only estate of
this desciiption in the District, and was transfened from Salem in
1851. It compiises five villages, and pays an annual peshkash of
Rs. 15,900. It was created by Government in 1S02 and given to
Saivottama Rao, then head s/ieristaddr of Salem.

Mussoorie {Plansmi) — Hill station and sanitarium in Dehia Dun
District, United Piovinces, situated in 30° 27' N. and 78° 5' E. It
stands on a ridge of the Outer Himalayas at a height of 6,000 to 7,500
feet above sea-level, among beautiful and varied mountain sceneiy, and
foims practically one town with Landour, where there is a convalescent
depot for troops The population of the municipality and cantonment
in the cold season has varied from 2,753 1^72 to 4,852 in 1881,

7,175 in 1891, and 6,461 in 1901. In September, 1900, the population
within municipal limits was 14,689, of whom 7,420 were Hindus, 3,424
Musalmans, and 3,660 Chiistians (mostly Euiopeans and Eurasians)
The cantonment population was 3,711, of whom 1,516 weie Chiistians.

Mussooiie became a sanitarium m 1826, the yeai befoie Landour
was made a convalescent dep6t for troops, and has giadually become
one of the most populai health lesorts in Noithein India. Up to 1900 it
was reached by road from Sahaianpui, 58 miles away, but the opening
of the Hardwar-Dehia Railway has made it nioie accessible Dehia is
about 7 miles fiom Rajpur, at the foot of the hills, fiom which Mus-
sooiie is reached by a bridle-path 7 miles long 01 by a cart-ioad of
14 miles During the hot season the members of the District staff
leside for part of each month at Mussoorie, and it is the summer head-
quarters of field parties of the Trigonometrical Survey of India. The
Mussoorie municipality was constituted in 1850. During the ten years
ending 1901 the receipts averaged Rs. 71,800, besides loans from
Government, amounting to Rs. r, 16,000, for watei-works and seweiage.
In 1903-4 the receipts were i-6 lakhs, including tax on houses and
land (Rs. 32,000), tolls (Rs. 50,000), conservancy tax (Rs. 19,000) ;
and the expenditure w^as 1-4 lakhs, including conseivancy (Rs. 28,000),
w^ater-supply (Rs. 13,000), general administration (Rs. 22,000), loads
(Rs. 26,000), inteiest and debt (R-^. 7,000). The Bhilaru sewage
shoot for the disposal of refuse is the most important samtaiy work,
carried out recently at a cost of Rs. 70,000 ; schemes for an improved
water-supply and electric lighting are under consideration

Mussoorie exists chiefly as a health resort, and the only manufacture
is that of beer at tw^o breweries, which employed 131 men m 1903 and
made nearly half a million gallons of beer. It is of great importance as
an educational centre for Euiopean and Eurasian children; and there
are nine schools for boys and five for girls of these classes, with about

MUSSOORTE

600 boaiders and 200 day scbolais, be'^ides a school at Landoui
A Roman Catholic cathedral is undei constiuction.

Mustafabad.— Noith-westem tahsil of Mainpuii District, United
Provinces, conterminous with the pargana of the same name, lying
between 27® 8' and 27° 31'' N. and 78® 27' and 78® 46'' E , with an
area of 318 squaie miles. Population increased from 155,253 in 1891
to 163,180 in 1901. There are 265 villages and only one town, which
contains less than 5,000 inhabitants The tahsil head-quaiters were
formerly at Mustafabad, but were moved to Jasrana in 1898 The
demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs 2,90,000, and for cesses
Rs. 46,000 The density of population, 513 persons per square mile,
is slightly above the District average Three rivers — the Arind, Sengai,
and Sirsa — cioss the tahsil^ the Sengar having two branches known as
Sengar and Senhar. A sandy ridge runs transversely fiom north-west
to south-east, but most of the soil is a fertile loam. In the south-
western half the wells aie often brackish, and the weed hatsim {Phichea
Ia 7 iceolata) is common Irrigation is supplied by three branches of the
Lower Ganges Canal. In 1902-3 the area undei cultivation was
181 square miles, of which loi weie irrigated Canals seive about
one-hfth of the irrigated area, and wells supply most of the lemaindei.

Mutha Canals. — Two canals on the right and left bank of the
Mutha rivei, in Poona District, Bombay, with a total length of 88 miles,
commanding 26 squaie miles in the Haveli talnha and the Dhond
petha of Poona District The canals, which were constiucted between
1873 and 1878— the Right Bank Canal in 1873-4 and the Left Bank
in 1877-8 — aie fed by Lake Fife The capital outlay on the canals
was originally 26-| lakhs , but the canals and the reservoir of Lake
Fife have involved a total expenditure, up to 1904, of 71 lakhs.
The maximum hitherto irrigated has been 22 square miles. One
of the main objects of the Mutha Canals is the supply of drinking-
water to Poona and Kirkee. Water rates are charged according to the
nature of the crops. The gioss assessment on ciops, and the revenue
expenditure on the canals, have been, in thousands of rupees —

Assessment Expenditure

18S0-90 (average) . . .1,62 69

1890-1900 (aveiage) , . 2,54 82

.... . 2,92 1,00

The percentage of net profits on these works varies fiom 2J to a little
over 3 per cent

Muttra District {Mathura), — North-western Distiict of the Agra
Division, United Provinces, lying between 27® 14' and 27® 58' N. and
77° 17' and 78® 13' E., with an area of 1,445 square miles It is
bounded on the north by the Punjab District of Gurgaon and by
Aligarh , on the east by Aligarh and Etah ; on the south by Agra ; and

MUTTRA DISTRICT

on the west by the Bhaiatpui State. Muttra lies on both sides of
the Jumna, which is fringed with ravines. In the centre of the western
boidei the outlying spurs of the Aravallis penetrate
the District, but do not rise more than 200 feetabo\e aspects^
the plain. Muttra is lemarkable for the absence
of rivers. Besides the Jumna there aie no channels, except the Karon
01 Karwan which flows across the east of the District, and the Patwai
or Patwaha which joins the Jumna in the Mat tahsll. The Jumna has
left a chain of swamps, lepiesenting an older channel, east of its present
bed. One of these is called Nohjhil, a shallow marsh, which before it
was drained sometimes attained a length of 6 miles in the rams. There
is a curious depiession in the west of the District, which extends fiom
the Bharatpur and Alwar States, but theie is no flow of water.

The gi eater part of the District is the ordinary alluvium of the
Gangetic plain, but the western hills are chiefly composed of quartzite.
Kankar or nodulai limestone is common, especially in the Jumna
ravines. While the water in many wells is brackish, saline efflorescences
are less common than elsewhere m the Doab.

The flora of the western half of the District resembles that of Raj-
putana. Early in the nineteenth century Bishop Heber was struck by
the wildness of the country. There are still large stretches of waste
land, especially m the Chhata tahstl^ covered with jungle in which the
ber {Zizy pints Jujuba) is the laigest tree. Along the canal the babul
{Acacia arabica) has been largely planted, and the mm {Melia Aza-
dirachtd) is fairly common, but other trees are scarce ^ The total area
of glove land is less than 9 squaie miles.

Leopards, ^\olves, hyenas, and nilgai aie found chiefly in the hilly
tracts near the Bhaiatpur bolder \ and wild cattle from Bharatpur
State formeily did much damage, but aie now kept out by a continuous
fence and ditch. AVild hog are plentiful in the Jumna ravines and
khadar^ and Muttra is celebrated foi ‘ pig-stickmg.’ Antelope are very
common, and the chinkdra or ‘ ravine deer ’ is also found. In the cold
season snipe and duck abound in the swamps and small tanks. Fish
are found in the Jumna and in many tanks, but are not much used
foi food.

The climate is very dry and hot, owing to the proximity of sandy
deserts to the west. Great extremes of temperature occur. In January
the mean temperature falls to 60°, while in June it rises to over 93°
In winter ice is not uncommonly formed in shallow puddles in the
early moining, while in Apiil, May, and June hot winds blow with
great force.

The annual rainfall during the last se\enteen years has averaged
26 inches, \\hich is evenly distiibuted, though the Jumna valley receives
^ A libt oftiecb lb ^ivcu in Mi !•. b. Gruwbe’b Mathura, (p. 431;.

MUTTRA DISTRICT

slightly more than the poitioas of the District on either side. Vaiia-
tions from }ear to year aie large ^ the fall has been less than i6 inches,
and has i cached nearly 36.

Muttra was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Sur^sena, and its
importance as a leligious centie is referred to by Ptolemy, who calls it
‘Modoura of the gods.’ Airian and Pliny describe
IS ory. Methoia. The earliest facts relating to its

histoiy are derived fiom the coins found heie, which indicate that
Muttra was ruled by a series of Hindu Rajas in the second and hist
centuries b c., followed by Saka Satraps, who gradually assume Hindu
names. In the hrst and second centuries a d , the inscriptions, found
in consideiable numbeis, prove that the sway of the gieat Kushan
kings was recognized here, and MutUa was a stronghold of the
Jains. In the sixth century Hiuen Tsiang found a laige city, containing
20 monasteiies with 2,000 piiests Muttra was probably one of the
places sacked by Mahmud of Ghazni m 1018-9, but the Distiict plays
little part in the early Muhammadan period, when it was largely held
by Mewatis. While its political history is slight, Muttra is important in
the religious histoiy of modern Hinduism. The reformed Vaishnava
creeds had their origin in Southern and Eastern India, but in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries several new sects were founded here,
which still influence Hindu thought. The western side of the Distiict
is celebrated as the Biaj Mandal or countiy of Krishna, and almost
eveiy giove, mound, and tank is associated with some episode in his
life. Throughout the year, and especially in the lains, bands of pilgrims
from all paits of India may be seen le^eiently visiting the holy shrines
The increased religious zeal of the Hindus attiacted the notice of Shah
Jahan and Aurangzeb, who took measures to ie[)iess it

As the Muglial empiie fell to pieces, the histoiy of the Distiict
merges in that of the Jats of Bharatpui, and only acquires a separate
individuality with the rise of Suiaj Mai. In 1712 Badan Singh, fathei
of the famous adventuier, proclaimed himself leader of the Jats, and
took up his lesidence at Sahar, where he built a handsome palace In
his old age he distributed his possessions among his sons, giving the
south-western portion of Bharatpur to his youngest, Pratap Singh, and
the remainder of his dominions, including Muttra, to his eldest, Suraj
Mai On Badan Singh’s death, Suraj Mai moved to Bhaiatpur and
assumed the title of Raja. In 1748 the Mughal empeior, Ahmad Shah,
invited the Jat leader to join with Holkar under the command of
Nawab Safdar Jang in suppressing the Rohilla rebellion. When Safdar
Jang revolted {see Oudh), Suraj Mai and his Jats thiew m their lot with
him, while Ghazl-ud-din, the Wazir, obtained the help of the Marathas.
Safdar Jang retreated to Oudh, whereupon Ghazl-ud-din laid siege to
Bharatpui, but, mistiusting his MarStha allies, shoitly returned to Delhi,

HISTORY

deposed Ahmad Shah, and raised AUmgir II to the thione. When
Ahmad Shah Duiram invaded India in 1757, Saidar Jahan Khan
endeavoured to levy tribute from Muttra , but finding that the people
withdrew into their forts, he fell back upon the city, plundered its
wealth, and massacred the inhabitants. Two years later the new
emperor was murdered, and the Afghan invader once moie advanced
upon Delhi Ghazl-ud-dm fled to Muttra and Bharatpur, and joined
the Hindu confederacy of Marathas and Jats which shattered itself in
vain against the forces of Ahrhad Shah at Panipat in January, 1761,
Suraj Mai, however, withdrew his forces before the decisive battle,
marched on Agra, ejected the Marathas, and made himself master also
of Muttra

Ahmad Shah having leturned to Afghanistan, Suiaj Mai thought it
a favourable opportunity to attack the Rohilla chief, Najib-ud-daula.
Marching to Shahdara, 6 miles from Delhi, he was, however, surprised,
captured, and put to death in 1763 by a small party of the imperialists.
Two of his sons, who succeeded to his command, were successively
murdeied, and the third, Nawal Singh, after losing Agra during Zabita
Khan’s rebellion, died in 1776. The fourth son, Ranjit Singh (not
to be confounded with the more famous Sikh Maharaja), inherited
Bharatpur with only an insignificant strip of territory.

During the contest between Sindhia and the Rajput princes in 1788,
the former obtained the aid of the Jats in raising the siege of Agra,
then held by Sindhia’s forces, and besieged by Ghulam Kadir. In
1803 Ranjit Singh of Bharatpur joined Loid Lake in his campaign
against Sindhia, with a foice of 5,000 Jat horsemen, and upon the
defeat of the Marathas he leceived as a leward the south-western
portion of Muttra, with Kishangarh and Rewari. But in the following
yeai he gave shelter to Holkar, when a fugitive after the battle of Dig.
This led to the fiist siege of Bharatpur by Lord Lake, and, although
his capital w^as not taken, Ranjit Singh lost the territory granted to
him in 1803.

Thenceforward Muttra remained free from historical incidents till
the Mutiny of 1857. News of the Meerut outbreak leached Muttia
on May 14 in that >ear Two days later, some Bharatpur troops
ai rived, and marched for Delhi under British officers. The force
halted at Hodal on the 26th , and on the 30th the sepoys sent to escort
the treasure from Muttra to Agra proved mutinous, so that the officials
w^eie compelled to fly and join the troops at Hodal. Shortly afterwards
the Bharatpur force likewise mutinied, and the Euiopeans fled for their
lives. The Magistrate returned to Muttra, and after vainly visiting
Agra in search of aid, remained with the fiiendly Seths (native bankers)
till June 14 Aftei the mutiny of the Gwalior Contingent at Aligaih
on July 2, the Nimach insurgents, maiching on Muttra, diove all the

MUTTRA DISTRICT

Euiupeans into Agia. The whole eastein portion of the District then
rose in lebellion, till Octobei 5, when the Magistrate made an expedi-
tion fiom Agra, and captured the lebel leadei, Deokaian. Colonel
Cotton’s column shoitly after^^ards pioceeded through the District to
KosI, punishing the insurgent villages, and aftei its leturn to Agia
thiough Lluttra no further distuibances took place In the nine-
teenth centuiy the leligious teaching of Muttra affected Dayanand,
founder of the Ar}a Samaj, who studied heie foi a lime.

The city of Muttra and Us neighbourhood aie rich in archaeological
lemains, and the exploiation of the Jam stupa in the Kankall tila or
mound has yielded valuable dated insciiptions of the Kushan kings ^
The finest Hindu temples at Muttia weie demolished 01 converted
into mosques by the Muhammadans, but some have survived at
Brindaban and Mahaban. Theie aie also fine specimens of the Jat
aichitecture of the eighteenth century at Gobardiian.

Muttra contains 14 towns and 837 villages. Population has haidly yet
lecoveied from the effects of the famine of 1877-8.

Population number at the four enumeiations was. (1872)

782,460, (1881) 671,690, (1891) 713,421, and (1901) 763^099
The District is divided into five tahsih — Muttra, Chhata, Mai,
Mahauan, and Sadabad — the head-quarters of each being at a place
of the same name. The principal towns are the municipalities of
Muitr\, Brindaban, and Kosi.

The following table gives the chief statistics of population in 1901 .—

Tahsit

At ea in square
miles

Number of

Population

Population per
square mile

Percentage of
variation m
population be-
tween 1891
and 1901

Number of
persons able to
read and
w I ite

Towns

Villages

MuUia

:. 9 <j

218

246,521

623

+ 50

■■

17,100

Chhala

.106

15R

173.756

428

+ 13

5.463

Mat

223

142

97.370

437

+ 89

2,683

Mahaban

240

192

136,566

1^69

+ 2 3

4 , 9 .U

‘^a'lah'id

iSo

127

ioS,886

605

+ 6.6

2,Si8

Distnct total

ii 445

S37

763.099

52S

+ 7.0

32,99s

Of the total, 89 per cent, are Hindus and 10 pei cent Musalmans.
The density of population is higher than the Provincial average, but
lower than in the other Doab Districts Between 1891 and 1901 the
rate of increase was highei than in the Provinces as a whole. About
99 pei cent, of the people speak Western Hindi, the prevailing dialect
being Braj.

The most numeious Hindu caste is that of Chamars (leather-workers
and labourers), 120,000. Brahmans numbei 115,000, Jats, 102,000^
* Epi^yaphta Indua^ \olb. 1 and u ; V. A. Smith, The Jam Stupa at Mathwd,

AGRICULTURE

and Rajputs, 67,000. The numbers then decrease, and the largest
castes are. Koiis (\\ea\eis), 17,000, Gadarias (shepherds), 16,000,
and Gujais, 14,000. The Jats, Gujars, and Aheiras (14,000) belong
to the western Districts , and the Ahnasis, who claim to be Biahinaiis
and number 1,400, are hardly found outside this District. Among
Muhammadans, Shaikhs number 13,000; Rajputs, 9,000 , and Pathans,
7,000. The agricultural population forms 53 per cent, of the total,
while general labourers form 10 per cent, and those supported by
personal services 8 per cent.

There were 2,031 native Christians in 1901 The earliest mission
was that of the Baptists, who commenced work eaily m the nineteenth
century It was followed in i860 by the Church Missionary Societ>,
and in 1887 by the American Methodist Chuich. The last of these
has been most successful, and 1,887 of the native Christians in 1901
were Methodists,

A considerable diffeience is to be noted between the tracts east and
west of the Jumna. The lattei is less fertile, and irrigation was
difficult before the constiuction of the Agia Canal, as * • i
the subsoil water is often biackish. Hamlets, apart
from the mam village site, are almost unknown ; and this custom,
which had its origin m the troubled times when the cultivator ploughed
with sword and shield lying in a cornei of his field, affects cultivation,
as manure is applied only to the home land near the village On
the othei hand, Jats, who aie the best cultivators, are chiefly found
west of the Jumna, and the eastern talislh aie plagued by a weed
called haisurl {Rlmhea lanceolatd) Besides the baiien land bordering
on the Jumna lavine, there is a strip of sand) soil along the foot of
the hills on the nestein boidei

The tenures are those commonly found in the Provinces In 1883,
out of 1,375 makdls 478 were zaminddri^ 492 patiiddn and imperfect
pattlddn^ and 505 bhaiydcMra. West of the Jumna some villages
belong to talukddn estates, chiefly to Muksan The mam agricultural
statistics for 1903-4 aie given below, m squaie miles —

Xahsil

lotal.

Cultivated

Irrigated

Culti\able

waste

Muttra .

396

297

117

5 3

Chhata

406

329

113

Mat

223

170

Mahaban

240

^95

Sadabad .

180

154

Total

1,445

389

15.S

The chief food-crops arc yoz£;ar and barley, which occujned 268 and
205 squaie miles respectively, 01 23 and iS per cent, of the net area

MUTTRA DISTRICT

cropped. Gram (193), wheat (153), and bajra (93) are also important,
while cotton covered an area of 13 1 square miles. The small area
undei specially valuable crops — sugar-cane, tobacco, and vegetables —
IS sti iking.

There ha\e been no improvements of recent years either in methods
or in the introduction of new seed The principal change has been
the substitution of wheat for cotton, largely owing to the extension of
canals A small but steady demand exists for loans under the Land
Improvement and Agriculturists’ Loans Acts, which amounted to
Rs. 96,000 and Rs 1,16,000 duimg the ten years ending 1900, but
advances in the famine year 1896-7 account for Rs 48,000 and
Rs 39,000 lespectively. In 1903-4 the loans were only Rs. 1,500 and
Rs. 1,065 With the extension of canal-irngation, drainage has also
been improved, especially in the Chhata tahsll, and the Patwai or
Patwaha in Mat has been deepened. Private enterprise has drained
the lake known as Nohjhil, while a few miles south of Muttra a dam
has been built by the zamtnddrs near Koela to keep out the Jumna.

The Jumna ravines and the khddar provide ample grazing ground,
but there is no indigenous bleed of cattle KosI is a great cattle mart,
at which animals are sold which have been imported from the Punjab
or Bharatpur State. Horse- and mule-breeding aie becoming popular,
and three horse and two donkey stallions have been provided by
Government. The sheep are of the ordinal y type

In 1903-4 the area iriigated was 389 square miles, out of a cultivated
area of 1,145 square miles Canals supplied 201 square miles, and
wells 188 The western division of the District is amply served by the
Agia Canal and its distributaiies. Up to 1903 the eastern portion had
no canaki ligation except in a few villages of the Mat tahsll ^ but the
Mat branch of the Upper Ganges Canal now supplies every part,
iriigalmg 25,000 acres in the spring of 1904 and more than 20,000 in
the autumn Tanks and livers are not used at all for irrigation, and
the use of the former is forbidden by the religious sanctity attaching
to most of them.

Sandstone is obtainable from the low hills in the Chhata tahsil^ but
most of the stone used in the District is brought from Agra or Bharat-
pur. The Gin Raj, which is of sandstone, is considered so holy that
to quarry it would be sacrilege, Kankar or nodular limestone is found
in all parts, and occurs in block form in the Sadabad tahsil.

The manufactures of the District are not very important. Calico
printing is carried on at Bnndaban, and old flannel is skilfully repaired.

Trade and
communications.

The masons and stone-carvers of Muttra aie justly
celebrated, and many houses and temples are adorned
wuth the giaceful leticulated patterns which the>

pioduce A special paper used foi native account-books is made here.

FAMINE

and the District is noted for the quaint siKer models of animals
produced, at Gokul. In 1903 there were 10 cotton-gins and presses,
employing about 970 hands. A few small indigo factories are still
worked, but the industry is not thiiving.

Gram and cotton are the chief exports, and the impoits include
sugar, metals, oilseeds, and piece-goods, most of the trade being with
Hathras. Muttia city is an impoitant dep6t for thiough traffic. Thus
cotton and oilseeds from Bharatpur State pass thiough heie to Hathras,
while sugar, salt, and metals are returned Kosi, m the north of the
District, is a great cattle market, where the peasants of the Upper Doab
purchase the plough-animals brought from Rajputana or the Punjab.

The East Indian Railway luns foi 7 miles across the east of the
Distiict, with one station. The narrow-gauge Cawnpore-Achhnera line
enters the District at the centie of the eastern boundary, crosses
the Jumna, and then turns south. It provides communication with
Hathras on the east and Agra on the south, and from Muttra city
a short branch serves the pilgrim traffic to Brindaban An extension
of the Midland section of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway from
Agra to Delhi, passing through Muttra, was opened in 1905

The District is well supplied with roads. Out of 500 miles, 171 are
metalled and 329 unmetalled. EMudmg 57 miles of metalled roads,
all of these aie maintained at the cost of Local funds. A\enues of
trees aie kept up 01131 miles. The mam route is that fiom Agra to
Delhi, a famous road under native rule, wdiich traverses the western
half of the District fiom south to north. Other loads pass from
Muttra west to D^ and Bharatpur, east thiough Hathias to the
Ganges, and south-east to Jalesar and Etah. The Agra Canal was
used foi navigation, but has been closed for this purpose since 1904.

Though piecise records do not exist, famine must have been fiequent
befoie British lule began, and the awful disaster of 1783-4 'was
especially severe in this tract. In 1813 the north of ^
the District was a centre of great distress Many amine,
pel sons perished of hunger, or sold their wives and childien foi a few
rupees or a single meal In 1825-6 a terrible drought affecting the
neighbouiing country was especially felt in the Mahaban tahslL In
1837-8 there was scarcity m all parts of the District, but it was not
so severe as in the Cential Doab, and in 1860-1 and 1868-9 Muttra
again suffered less than other Districts, though distress was felt The
famine of 1 8 7 7-8 struck this tract more heavily than any other District
in the Division, and mortality rose to 71-56 per 1,000 The monsoon
fall in 1877 was only 4.3 inches, and the deficiency chiefly affected the
mam food-crops which are raised on uniriigated land. As usual,
distress w^as aggravated by an influx of starving people from Rajputana.
In 1896-7 famine was again felt, especially in the Muhaban and

MUTTRA DISTRICT

SadabM tahsils^ which had no canal-irngation In June, 1897, the
number on relief works amounted to 23,000. About Rs. 86,000 was
advanced for the construction of temporary wells, chiefly east of the
Jumna, and i-8 lakhs of revenue was remitted or suspended. Theie
was scarcity m 1899-1900, and advances were fieely made, but relief
w^oiks \vere not found necessary. The canal extensions of 1903 have
probabl} secured the District against serious famine in the future.

The oidinaiy stalF of the District includes a member of the Indian
Cull Service and three Deputy-Collectors recruited in India. A tahsil-
. ddr lesides at the head-quarteis of each of the five

Administration. Executive Engmeeis of the Canal

depaitment are stationed at Muttra city

Muttra IS included in the Civil and Sessions Judgeship of Agia.
There are two Munsifs, one at Muttra and one at Mahaban. Owing
to its situation near a Native State, serious dacoities aie not infrequent,
and cattle-theft is common. Jats, and in some places Gujars, are the
chief cattle-lifters , and la 7 igun is regularly practised, a system by
which the owner recovers his stolen property on payment of a certain
propoition of its value. The Mallahs (boatmen and fisheimen) of
the north of the District are noted pickpockets and railw^ay-thieves,
frequenting all the large fairs of the United Provinces, and even visiting
Bengal,

Most of the Distiict came under British administiation at the end
of 1803, and was then distnbuted between the surrounding Distiicts
of Farrukhabad, Etawah, and Agra. In 1804 the parganas included
in Farrukhabad and Etaw^ah weie made ov^er to Aligaih , but in 1823
the nucleus of the eastern part of the District was formed with head-
quarteis at Sadabad, and in 1832 Muttia, which had always been
a cantonment, became the civil capital There are still enclaves
belonging to Bharatpur State, the Raja of which held part of the
present District up to 1826. The eaily settlements were made under
the ordinary lules foi short penods of one, thiee, or five years, and
were based on estimates In the western pait of the District the
farming and taluhddn system was maintained foi some time as in
Aligarh, and was even extended, as tahckddri rights were sometimes
granted in lieu of farms. In the eastern portion farmers and talukddni
were set aside from the first The first regular settlement under
Regulation VII of 1822 was made on different principles. West of the
river an attempt was made to ascertain the rental ‘assets,’ while in
the east the value of the crops was estimated The former settlement
was not completed when Regulation IX of 1833 ’^vas passed, and the
latter broke down from the excessive demand imposed. The revenue
of the whole District (excluding 84 villages transferred from Agra
111 1878) was theiefore revised undei Regulation IX of 1833, and

. IDAf/XIST/^. i Troy

an assessment of 136 lakhs fixed The next settlement was made
between 1872 and 1879. The method adopted was to assess on what
w^eie considered fair rents, ai rived at by selection from actual rents
paid. These were applied to the different classes of soil into which
each village w^as divided. The levenue sanctioned amounted to
15-3 lakhs, to which must be added i lakh, the revenue of villages
transferred from Agra in 1878 The incidence of revenue fell at
Rs. 1-T3 per acie, vaiying fiom Rs. 1-4 to Rs. 2-14. The bad
yeais following the famine of 1877-8 and the fever of 1879 led to
a decline in cultivation , and revisions of settlement were made
between 1887 and 1891, w^hich reduced the demand by a lakh, 'fhe
settlement has now^ been extended for a further period of ten years
Collections on account of land revenue and revenue fiom all
sources are shown below, in thousands of lupees • —

1880-1

1890-1

I 900-1

190^-4

Land revenue

Total leveime .

I .-, 95 i

15,08

20,72

15,41

31,66

14,90

21,22

Outside the three municipalities — Muttra, Brtndaban, and Kosi —
and eleven towns administered under Act XX of 1856, local affairs are
managed by the District board, w’hich has a total income and expendi-
ture of about I 3 lakhs, chiefly derived from rates jVbout half the
expenditure is incurred on the maintenance of roads and buildings.

There are 24 police stations, and the District Superintendent of
police is assisted by 4 inspectors. In 1904 the force consisted of 91
subordinate officers and 392 constables, besides 320 municipal and
town police, and 1,640 rural and road police. The Distiict jail has
accommodation for 318 prisoners.

Muttra takes a fairly high place in the Provinces in regard to literacy,
4*3 per cent, of the population (7*8 males and 0-3 females) being able
to read and write m 1901 This is largely owing to its importance
as a religious centre The number of public schools fell from 165 in
1 880-1 to T32 m 1 900-1, but the number of pupils increased fiom
5,505 to 6,511. In 1903-4 theie were 197 public schools with 8,981
pupils, including 478 girls, besides 82 private institutions wuth 1,781
pupils All of these schools w^ere primary, except nine of the public
and tw^o of the piivate schools. The expenditure on education in
1903-4 was Rs. 43,000, of which Rs. 31,000 was provided from Local
and municipal funds and Rs. 8,300 by fees. IMost of the schools are
managed by the District and municipal boards.

There aie eight hospitals and dispensaries, which contain accommo-
dation for 77 m-patients. In 1903 the number of cases treated was
58,000, of whom 995 were in-patients, and 3,600 operations were

72 .VUTTRA DISTRICT

performed. The total expendituie was Rs. t 6,000, chiefly fiom Local
funds.

In 1903-41116 number of pei sons vaccinated was 24,000, lepiesenting
31 per r,ooo of population Vaccination is compulsory only in the
municipalities and the cantonment

[R. S. Whiteway, Seitk 7 nent Report (1879), ^ ^ Groivse, AfatJuird
(Allahabad, 1883), District Gazetteer (1884, under revision), V. A
Smith, The Jam Stupa at Mathura^

Muttra Tahsil. — South-westein iaJml of Muttia District, United
Provinces, conterminous with the pai'gana of Muttra, lying between
27° 14' and 27° 39'' N and 77^ 20' and 77° 51' E, with an area of
396 square miles. Population lose from 234,914 in 1891 to 246,521 in
1901. There aie 218 villages and six towns, the largest of which aie
Muttra (population, 60,042), the District and tahsll head-quaiteis,
Brindaban (22,717), and Gobardhan (6,738) The demand for
land levenue in 1903-4 was Rs 2,94,000^ and foi cesses Rs. 55,000
The density of population, 623 peisons pei square mile, is the highest
in the Distiict The extends fiom the Jumna to the low hills on
the Bharatpur boidei, and contains the celebrated hill called Gin Raj
To the east the influence of the Jumna extends foi three miles inland,
low alluvial soil, ravines, and sandy dunes being found along its banks.
From the edge of this broken giound a flat uniform plain stretches to
the hills, w’lthout a single stream. The principal autumn crops aie
jowdr^ cotton, and bdj 7 ^a ; the spring crops are gram and wheat In
1903-4 the area under cultivation was 297 square miles, of which 117
w^ere irrigated. The Agra Canal supplies an area twice as large as that
seived by w^ells

Muttra City, — Head-quarters of the District of the same name,
with cantonments, m the United Provinces, situated in 27° 30' N. and
77° 41' E, on the right bank of the Jumna, on the main road from
Agra to Delhi, and on the Cawnpore-Achhnera Railway, 886 miles
from Calcutta and 914 from Bombay A new broad-gauge line from
Agra to Delhi, passing through Muttra, has recently been completed,
and another towards Bombay is under constiuction Population has
fluctuated in the last thirty yeais • (1872) 59,281, (i88i) 57,724, (1891)
61,195, and (1901) 60,042. In 1901 Hindus numbered 46,523, and
Musalmans 12,598.

The city of Muttia is one of the great centres of Hindu leligious
life, being famous as the birthplace of Krishna, who is now reverenced
as the eighth incarnation of Vishnu. Its eaily history has been nairated
in that of Muttra District, Inscriptions and other relics prove that
early in the Christian era it was a centre of Buddhism and Jainism,
and m the seventh century the Chinese pilgrim still found Buddhist
priests and monasteries. Muhammadan historians chiefly refer to

MUTTRA CTTY

It as a town to be plundered, oi as a seat of idolatry with buildings
to be destioyed A town called Maharat-ul-Hind, identified as Muttra,
was sacked by Mahmud of Ghazni in T018-9. About 1500 Sultan
Sikandai Lodi utterly destroyed all the shiines, temples, and images.
During Akbar’s leign leligious tolerance led to the building of new
temples, but in 1636 Shah Jahan appointed a governor to ‘stamp out
idolatry’ in Muttra In 1669-70 Aurangzeb visited the city, changed
its name to Islamabad, and destroyed many temples and shrines,
building mosques on two of the finest sites. Muttra was again
plundered by the Afghan cavaliy of Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1757,
when a crowd of defenceless pilgrims were slaughtered. The city fell
into British hands m 1803 and was at once occupied as a cantonment,
but did not become the civil head-quarters of the District till 1832
Archaeological lemains of the greatest value have been discovered in
and near Miittia ’’

The native city lies along the Jumna, presenting a highly pictuiesque
appearance fiom the lailway bridge or the opposite bank. Fiom the
water’s edge uses a continuous line of siont glidts^ thionged in the eaily
moining by crowds of bathers Fine stone houses and temples line
the nariow road which passes along the ghats , and above these aie
seen, tiei upon tier, the flat-ioofed houses of the city, which stand on
ground using up from the iivcr bank At the north end is the old
ruined fort where was situated one of the obseivatoiies erected by Raja
Man Singh of Jaipur, which has now disappeaied In the centre the
white minarets of the Jama Masjid, built in 1662, ciown the picture.
The mam streets are wider and straighter than is usual m an Indian
city, and they aie paved continuously with stone flags, raised in the
centre to secure good drainage. The numerous temples for which
the city is noted are usually quadrangles, the walls and entrances of
which are adorned with handsome stone carving and reticulated
screens. The existing buildings are chiefly modern, and new temples
and dharmsdlas or shelters for pilgrims are still being added by wealthy
bankers and the rulers of Native States. West of the city stands the
mosque of Aurangzeb, built about 1669, on the lofty site of the temple
of Kesava Deva, which w^as formerly the finest temple in Muttra and
was celebrated thioughout India. On the ghats towers the Sati Burj 01
pillar commemorating the sati of a Rani of Jaipur, built about 1570.
The Hardmge Gate at the principal entrance to the city, w^hich is
a fine specimen of stone carving, was erected by public subscription in
memory of a former Collectoi, South of the city and a little distance
from the nver he the cantonments and civil station, Muttra is the
head-quarters of the ordinary District staff and also of an Executive
Engineer of the Agra Canal. Close to the District offices stands

^ Epigjaphia /?td?ca, xols i and li; V. A. Smith, The Jam Stupa at Mathura

MUTTRA CITY

a museum faced with stone, carved m the usual manner, which contains
a number of sculptuies and other objects found in the District Muttia
IS the chief station of the Baptists, of the Church Missionary Society,
and of the Methodist Episcopal Mission in the District,

Muttra was constituted a municipality in 1866 During the ten
years ending 1901 the income and expenditure averaged Rs. 61,000.
In 1903-4 the income was Rs 89,000, chiefly derived from octioi
(Rs. 64,000); and the expenditure was Rs. 81,000. The sewage of the
city IS collected in tanks and carried by carts to a distance. Solid
matter is trenched on the grass faim in cantonments.

While the prosperity of the city chiefly depends on its religious
attractions, its commercial importance is inci easing Thioughout
the nineteenth century it was the head-quarteis of the great banking
firm of the Seths, Mam Ram and Lakshml Chand, one of the most
celebrated in India, which has now collapsed. Four cotton-gins and
presses employed 392 hands in 1903, and there is a considerable export
of cotton and gram, while sugai, piece-goods, and metals are imported.
The city is noted for the pioduction of papei for native account-books,
and also foi the manufactuie of biass idols and other small ai tides
sold to pilgrims. It contains a large number of schools, including
a high school with 170 pupils, a fahslll school mth 150, the Ameiican
Methodist school with 140, besides seven schools for boys and eleven
for girls, aided by the District or municipal boards, and twenty private
schools and pdthsalas.

The population of the cantonments in 1901 was 2,928, and the
ordinary garrison consists of a regiment of British cavalry. In 1903-4
the income and expenditure of cantonment funds were both about
Rs. 7,000

Muttupet- — Town in the Tirutturaippundi taluk of Tanjore District,
Madras, situated in 10° 24' N. and 79° 30' E , with a station on the
District board railway. Population (1901), 9,099 It is about 6^ miles
from the sea, but communicates with it by the navigable river Koiaiyar,
a blanch of the Cauvery Possessing the advantage of a protected bay
where native craft can moor during bad w^eather, the town carnes on an
active trade with Ceylon all the year round, the chief export being rice.

Muzaffargarh District. — District m the Multan Division of the
Punjab, lying between 28® 56' and 30^^ 47' N and 70° 31' and 71° 47' E ,

Physical

aspects.

with an area of 3,635 square miles. It occupies
the extreme southern apex of the Sind-Sagar Doab,
the wedge-shaped tract between the Indus and the

Panjnad or united wateis of the ‘five rivers,’ sketching northward fiom

their confluence in a narrow wedge of land, w’hich giadually widens for

about 130 miles, until at its northern border a distance of 55 miles

intervenes between their channels. Its shape is therefore that of a

MUZAMURGAIUI DISTRICT 75

tolerably legular triangle The adjoining Distiictb are Deia Ghazi
Khan on the we^t, Mianwali and Jhang on the noith, and Multan on
the east, while on the south-east it is bounded by the State of Bahawal-
pur. The northern half of the District compiises the valley of the
Indus on the west and that of the Chenab on the east, the wild Thai
01 central steppe of the Smd-Sagai Doab extending for a consideiable
distance down its midst This and plateau, rising like a backbone in
the centre of the wedge, has a width of 40 miles in the extreme noith,
and terminates abruptly on either side in a high bank, about 20 miles
from the present bed of the Indus, and 3 miles from that of the Chenab.
As the rivers conveige, the Thai gradually contracts, until about 20 miles
south-west of Muzaffargarh town it disappears altogether. Though
apparently an elevated table-land, it is really composed of separate
sandhills, whose intermediate valleys he at a level not much higher than
that of the Indus, and some of them at the extreme west weie at one
time flooded by the bursting of the western bariier ridge or bank.
Scattered amid this waste of sand-heaps a few plots of good land occui,
which the ceaseless industry of the cultivators has converted into fields
of gram. South of the I'hal plateau, the space between the livers con-
tracts to a width of 20 miles, part of which is subject to inundation
from either side The middle tract lies sufficiently high, as a lule, to
escape excessive flooding, and is fuithei protected by embankments,
while It remains, on the other hand, within the reach of easy urigation.
This poition of the District, accoidingly, consists of a rich and pio-
ductive country, thickly studded with prosperous villages. But in the
extreme south, the floods from the two riveis spread at times across the
whole mtervenmg tract. On abating, they leave luxuriant pasturage foi
cattle , and if their subsidence takes place sufficiently early, magnificent
crops of wheat, pulse, and gram are raised in the cultivated portion.
The towns stand on higher sites 01 are protected by embankments,
but the villages scattered over the lowlands are exposed to annual
inundation, during which the people abandon their grass-built huts, and
take refuge on w^ooden platforms attached to every house, where they
remain till the floods subside. The Indus, which foims the western
boundary of the District, at one time flowed down the centre of the
Thai desert. In the middle of the District aie numcious villages,
now far away fiom the Indus, whose names denote that at one time
they stood on or neai the river bank, and the inland portion is full
of watercourses which were once beds of the Indus. The Chenab
forms the eastern boundary for a length of 127 miles.

The District contains nothing of geological interest, as it lies entirely
on the alluvium. The flora is that of the Western Punjab, with an
infusion of the desert and trans-Indus elements. Popiilus euphratica
occurs by the iiver. The date-palm and mango are cultivated. The

VOL. XVIII. h

MUZAFFARGARH DISTRICT

tah [palbetgia Sissoo) is abundant neai the Indus, and in most paits
the van {Saivadora) and the farwa 7 ii {Taniarix artuulata) are
plentiful , but otherwise trees exist onl> wheie planted.

Tigeis weie seen in the dense jungles neai the Indus as late as 1879
Wolves and wild hog aie common The hog deer and ‘ia\ine deer’
(Indian gazelle) aie found ^ and featheied game, including geese, ducks
of all soits, floricaii, sand-grouse, and partridges, is plentiful.

The chief feature of the climate is its extreme dryness The heat
fiom May to Septembei is intense, but a cool wind springs up regulaily
about II p 111., which makes the nights endurable. Fiom November to
February severe hosts occur, causing great injuiy to cotton, mangoes,
and turnips. The District is healthy for Europeans, but the natives
suffer from malarial fever in the autumn, and from diseases of the eyes
and skin in the hot season. The lamfall is veiy scanty, aveiaging
slightly less than 6 inches in the year It is m fact impossible to laise
ciops on land dependent solely on the rainfall

INIuzaffargarh hardly possesses any distinct annals of its own, having
always foinied pait of the INIultan piovince, whose foi tunes it has in-
History vaiiably followed In ancient times this tract was
probably ruled by the Hindu d> nasty of the Rais,
to which succeeded the Brahman line of Chach The Arabs made
their first appearance in 664, and in 712 it was overrun by Muhammad
bin Kasim. For the next three centuries the country was in the
military occupation of the Muhammadans, but it is unlikely that any
considerable conversion of its inhabitants or settlements of Muham-
madan invaders took place until the Ghazni vid supremac)^ Muzaffar-
garh probably fell under the influence of the Sumra dynasty which
arose in Sind about 1053 their successors the Sammas, and

undei their rule an immigration of Rajput tribes from Hindustan is
said to have taken place During the rule of the Langah dynasty in
Multan the independent kingdom of Sitpur was established in the south
of the Distiict, and from that time till the end of the eighteenth
century it was held by foui separate governments or principalities,
which were, during the Mughal period, included in Akbar’s sarkdr of
Multan. In the southern angle was Sitpur, founded under a grant
made by Bahlol Lodi in 1450, and first held by the Nahar family, then
by the ^nakhdutns of Sitpur, and finally, about 1790, annexed by
Bahawal Khan II, of Bahawalpur. The w^est central part was governed
by the rulers of Dera Ghazi Khan A line of Mirani Balochs, who had
settled on the left bank of the Indus at the end of the fifteenth century,
ruled till 1769, when one Mahmud Gujar, with the aid of the Kalhora
governor of Sind, obtained the governorship of Dera Ghazi Khan. He
appears to have been a good luler, and built the fort of Mahmud Kot.
Shortly aftei his death Bahawal Khan II invaded this tract, which had

POPULATION

been thrown open to him by the shifting of the Indus to the west, and
by the end of the century the whole of the south was in the possession
of Bahawalpui. The eastern part was nominally luled by the governors
of Multan, and has the same history as that District; and when the
Dunam empire superseded that of Delhi m Noith- Western India,
Muzaffaigarh fell to the new power, with the lest of the province. The
town of Muzaffargarh was founded in 1794 by the Pathan governor,
Muzaffar Khan, and Khangarh and Ghazanfargarh by members of his
family The north of the District, with the west, was under the Baloch
governors and Mahmud Gujar, to whom succeeded a family of Jaskani
Balochs and the Kalhoras of Sind. In 1792 a subordinate of Muzaffar
Khan was appointed luler of this pait with the title of Nawab of
Mankera, defeating the Kalhora chief in a battle

Kanjit Singh took Multan, Muzaffargarh, and Khangarh m r8i8,
Dei a Ghazi Khan in 1819, and Mankeia in 1821 , and the northern
part of the District passed under the rule of the Sikhs, being adminis-
tered partly from Mankera, and partly from Multan by Diwan Saw an
Mai. The southern half, however, still remained m the hands of the
Bahawalpur Nawabs, who accepted a lease of their conquests fiom the
Sikh Maharaja , but when the Nawab failed to remit the annual amount
in 1S30, Ranjit Singh sent General Ventura to take charge of Ins con-
quests, and the iiver Sutlej* was accepted as the boundary between the
Sikh kmgdom and the territories of Bahawalpui. The whole of the
present District was then united under Sawan Mai. He was succeeded
in 1844 by his son Miilraj, and the Sikh supremacy remained unshaken
until the Multan rebellion and the annexation of the Punjab in 1849.
At the first division of the Province for administrative pui poses by the
British authorities, the town of Khmigarh, 1 1 miles south of Muzaffar-
garh, was selected as the head-quaiters of a District, but was abandoned
in favour of Muzaffaigarh. Subsequent tiansfers of territory to and
from Leiah and Jhang brought the District into its present shape in
1861 , and the name w^as then changed from Khangarh to Muzaffargarh.

The principal remains of antiquarian interest are the tombs of Nawab
Tahir Khan Nahai at Sitpur, and of Abdul Wahhab Din Panah
{ob, 1603) at Daira DIn Panah The former, wdiich dates from the
fifteenth century, is a fine specimen of the late Pathan style.

The population at the last three enumerations was . (1881) 338,605,

(1891) 38I3O95, and (1901) 405,656, dwelling m 4 towns and 700

villages. During the last decade the population in- _ , ^

jur ^ ^ . A A A Population,

creased by 6-4 per cent. The District is divided

into three Muzaffargarh, Alipur, and Sanawan — the head-

quarters of each being at the place from which it is named. The
towns are the municipalities of Muzaffargarh, the administrative
head-quaiters of the District, Khangarh, Alipur, and Khairpur.

MUIAFI'ARGARII DISTRICT

The following table shows the chief statistics of population in
rgoi . —

1 1

2 ahsil 1

Area in square
miles 1

(

Nuir

iber of

I £

' br

Population

Population per
square mile

Percentage of
variation in
population be-
tween 1891
and rgoi

Number of
persons able to
read and
u rite

9^3

37S

174,970

J 91*6

1-62

6,226

Sanawan

140

100,091

75 s

+ 62

3.343

Alipiii

92L

182

13^,595

141 8

+ 70

5.^87

District total

3.635

700

4053656

III 6

+ 6*4

i 4,656

Notf- —The figures for the areas of fah^tls are taken from reienue returns The
total District area is that gtten in the Census Report

Muhammadanb number 350,177, 01 ovei 86 per cent, of the total ,
Hindus, 52,221 , and Sikhs, 3,225 The density of population is very
low The language of the people is a foim of Western Punjabi

The most numerous tube is that of the agncultuial Jats, who num-
bei 117,000, 01 29 per cent of the total population Next to them
come the Baloch (77,000) Othei important agucultural castes are the
Rajputs (17,000) and Aiains (9,000) Saiyids number 8,000 The
Aroras (36,000) are the only commeicial and money-lending class of
impoitance, the Khattris being very few. Of the artisan classes, the
Mochis (shoemakers and leather-woikers, 13,000), Julahas (weavers,
12,000), Tarkhans (carpenters, 10,000), and Kumhm's (potters, 7,000)
are the most important , and of the menial classes, the sweepeis, mostly
known as Kutanas (16,000), and Dhobis, knowm as Charhoas (washer-
men, 8,000). The District bemg suiiounded by rneis, the Mallahs
(boatmen) aie numerically stiong, numbering 10,000 Other tubes
worth mention are the Mahtams (4,000), mostly Hindus , Ods (3,000),
a 'wandering caste living by labour in the fields , Marechas (800),
a class of \vandering beggais from Marwar and Bikaner, found in this
District in largei numbers than elsewhere , and Kehals (600), a vagrant
fishing tribe found only here and in Dera Ghazi Khan. I’he District
contained 17 native Christians in 1901 About 58 pei cent, of the
population are supported by agriculture.

The soil consists chiefly of alluvial loam, more or less mixed with
sand, and interspersed with patches of clay, sand, and salt-impregnated

Agriculture whole it is uniformly good, but agri-

cultural conditions depend, not on distinctions of
soil, but on facilities for irrigation. The District has practically no
unirngated cultivation, and from an agricultural point of view may be
regarded as falling into three divisions the alluvial tract, the canal
tract, and that irrigated by wells.

AGRICU7.TURE

The land is held almost entirely on the hhaiydtham
tenures. The area for which details aie available from the revenue
records of 1903-4 is 3,157 square miles, as shown below —

Tah&tl

Total

Culti\at etl

Irrigated

Cultivable

waste

Mnzaffargarh

912

250

409

San Swan

I5.S21

2 1 2

176

1,015

AlTpiir

924

1 89

400

Total

816

615

1,824

Wheat is the chief crop of the spiing hanest, covering in 1Q03-4 365
square miles ; barley covered 21 square miles, and gram 33. Rice and
»,piked millet {J)djra) aie the piincipal food-ciops of the autumn haivest,
covenng 51 and 29 square miles respectively, while pulses covered
39 square miles, indigo 28, cotton 36, and gieat millet {jowd}') 24.

In the tw^enty-two yeais following the settlement of 1873-80 the
cultivated area increased by 28 pei cent, chiefly owing to the extension
of canal-irngation Nothing has been done to improve the quality of
the crops giown. The tendency is for the cultivation of indigo and
cotton to decline, and for rice to take then place. Loans for the con-
struction of w^ells are popular, and over Rs 16,000 w^as advanced during
the five yeais ending 1903-4 under the Land Improvement Loans Act.

Muzaffaigaih is not a cattle-breeding Distiict, the local breed being
distinctly inferior, and cattle are bought from Dei a Ghazi Khan, Sind,
and Bahawalpur. An annual cattle fan is held at Muzaflargaih. The
mares of the District are above the average and show tiaces of the
Baloch strain; four pony and fi\e donkey stallions are maintained by
the District boaid. A considerable number of sheep and goats aie
kept. About 9,000 camels iveie registeied at the cattle enumeration
of 1904.

Of the total area cultivated in 1903-4, 615 square miles, or 75 per
cent., were classed as irrigated. Of this area, 84 square miles were
irrigated from wells, 218 from wells and canals, 276 from canals, and
37 from channels and tanks. The lemaining 25 per cent, of the
cultivated area is subject to inundation fiom the Indus and Chenfib
The canal-irrigation is from the system knowm as the Muzaffargarpt
Inundation Canals, taking off fiom the Indus and Chenab As
these flow only wdiile the rivers are in flood, they are largely supple-
mented by wells, of which 15,719 were in use, all worked with Persian
wheels by cattle. Irrigation from creeks and tanks is carried on by
means of water-lifts, there being 3,066 wrater-lifts and temporary wells

The District contains 73 squaie miles of ‘ unclassed ’ foiest under the
Deputy-Conservator of the Multan Foiest division, and 403 square

MUZAFFARGARH DISTRICT

miles of ^unclasscd’ forest and Go\einment waste undci the Deputy-
Cominissionei These forests consist chiefly of a light growth of
Popidus euphratica and jand^ with dense jungles of long grass. The
date-palm is common and supplies a staple food to the people during
part of the yeai, besides furnishing a considerable levenue to Govern-
ment fiom the tax paid on each tree There aie also large mango
groves

The District produces no mineials of importance ^ earth-salt used
to be manufactured, but this is no\v piohibited, and the production of
saltpetre is also extinct.

Muzaffargarh is not remarkable for its industries Ordinary cotton
cloth is woven, and mats and baskets are largely made from the leaves
of the dwarf-palm Sitpui used to be noted foi
coiSfiS^ications. decorated bows, which aie now produced at Kot
Addu in the Sanawan tahsll. Snuft is manufactured
at Allpur The District contains two cotton-ginning and i ice-husking
factones, to one of w^hich a cotton-press is attached, in 1904, 12S
hands were employed.

The chief exports of the District are wheat, sugar, cotton, indigo,
dates, and mangoes , and the chief imports aie piece-goods, metals,
salt, and lime. Trade is chiefly in the hands of Multan dealeis, w^ho
export the surplus produce either dowm the nvei to Sukkui or by rail
to Multan. A fair amount of trade used to be carried on by Powinda
merchants with Afghanistan and Central Asia, but this is now almost
extinct ow'ing to the prohibitive duties imposed in Afghanistan.

The North-Western Railw^ay enters the District from Multan by
a bridge over the Chenab, and turns northwards, running along the
Indus bank. A branch runs to Ghazi Ghat, between which and Dei a
Ghazi Khan communication is maintained by means of a budge of
boats in wintei and a steam ferry in summer The total length of
metalled roads is 25 miles, and of unmetalled roads 559 miles. Of these,
17 miles of metalled and 24 miles of unmetalled roads are under the
Public Works depaitment, and the lest aie maintained by the District
board. There is a good deal of river traffic on the Indus, w^hich is
crossed by 16 ferries, the Chenab being crossed by 19

Owdng to the fact that all the cultivation is irrigated, Muzaffargarh
may be regarded as practically immune from famine. The area of
crops matured in the Di.strict in the famine year 1899-1900 w^as 84 per
cent, of the normal.

The District is m charge of a Deputy-Commissioner, aided by four
Assistant or Extra-Assistant Commissioners, of w^hom one is in charge

Administration District treasui3\ It is divided into three

tahslh — Muz^ff^rg^rh, Alipur, and Sanawan —
each under a taJisJlda 7 \ assisted by tw’o ?mib-tahsl/ddrs in each of the

. / DMTNIFITRA 770 X

first two, and by one in the last-named ta/islL Mupaffaigaih town is
the head-quarters of an Executive Engineei of the Canal department

The Deputy-Commissioner as District Magistrate is responsible for
criminal justice, civil judicial work is under a District Judge, and
both officers are supervised by the Divisional Judge of the Multan
Cu il Division, wffio is also Sessions Judge. There are thiee Munsifs,
two at head-quarters and one at Allpur. The piedominant forms of
crime aie cattle-theft and burglary.

T^ittle is known of the revenue system of the various rulers before the
time of Dlwan Saw’an Mai. By 1820 the Sikhs held the whole of the
District, and in 1829 it came undei Sa\van Mai, wffio exacted a large
revenue, but kept the people contented. In 1859 the Sanawan fa/is?/
w^as added to the Distiict, which assumed its present shape in i86t.

The fiist summary assessment was pitched too high. It had been
framed by valuing the weight of wheat taken by the Sikhs at Rs. 1-8
per maund , but the price soon fell to to and 12 annas per raaund,
and large remissions had to be allowed. In 1854 the second summaiy
settlement began. A reduction of 10^ pei cent, was made in Sanawan,
while in IMuzafifargaih and Allpur inci eases were taken of 6 and 21 per
cent respectively. Good seasons weie believed to justify the increase
of an assessment which had already proved to be excessive. In less
than two yeais it broke down, and a third summaiy settlement was
made, reducing the revenue in Sanawan still further, and that of the
other tahsth to their first assessment. This settlement was badly
worked, the canals were nevei cleaied fiom 1849 to 1876, and the
revenue w^as never 1 edistributed.

The legular settlement began in 1873 completed in 1880.

Including grazing dues and the assessment on date-palms, the new
demand was 5f lakhs. Most of the revenue was fixed, but fluctuating
assessments weie sanctioned for the riveiain ciicles A revised settle-
ment, undertaken in 1897 and finished m 1903, resulted in an increase
of about Rs. 1,25,000. Neaily half the assessment is now fluctuating,
crop rates varying between Rs. 2-4 and 6 annas being imposed on
matured crops, in addition to a lump sum on each well. The demand
(including cesses) for 1903-4 amounted to 8*5 lakhs. The aveiage size
of a proprietary holding is about 7 acies (cultivated).

The collections of land revenue alone and of total revenue are shown
below, in thousands of rupees —

i88o-i

1890-1

I9OO-T

1903-4

Land revenue

5,S6

6,19

5 >90

6,93

Total levenne

7,00

^<58

8,42

9*37

The District contains four municipalities • Muzaffa.rgarh, Khan-

MUZAFFARGARH DISTRICT

GARH, Alipur, and Khairpur. Outside these, local affairs are
managed by the District board. A local rate supplies the gi eater
part of the board’s income, which m 1903-4 amounted to Rs 67,000,
The expenditure m the same yeai was Rs. 71,000, public works
forming the principal item

The regular police force consists of 397 of all ranks, in chaige of
a Superintendent, who usually has four inspectors undei him Village
watchmen number 489 There are fourteen police stations, one out-
post, and four road-posts. The District has no jail, convicted pnsoneis
being sent to Multan.

Muzaffargaih stands eighteenth among the twenty-eight Districts of
the Province in lespect of the liteiacy of its population. In 1901
the proportion of literate peisons was 3-6 per cent. (6-5 males and
0-2 females). The number of pupils under instruction was 1,612 in
j88o-i, 3,587 in 1890-1, 4,194 in 1900-1, and 4,106 in 1903-4. In
the last yeai theie weie one special, 3 secondary, and 58 primary
(public) schools, with 14 advanced and 86 elementary (private) schools,
the public schools returning 108 girls and the private schools 309 In
1903-4 the expenditure on education was Rs. 24,000, the greater part
of which was met by Local funds.

Besides the civil hospital, the District possesses six outlying dis-
pensaries. In 1904 a total of 91,878 out-patients and 1,213 m-patients
weie treated, and 3,598 operations were performed The expenditure
was Rs 14,000, mainly deiived from Local funds.

The number of successful vaccinations m 1903-4 was 12,082, lepie-
senting 29-8 per 1,000 of the population.

[D C. J. Ibbetson, District Gazetteer \ Han Kishan Kaul,

Settlement Repo? t (1904), and Custo?nary Law of the Miizaffarga 7 li
District (1903) ]

Muzaffargarh Talisil. — Cential tabs?/ of Muzaffaigarh Distnct,
Punjab, lying between 29° 54' and 30° 15' N and 70° 51' and
71° 21^ E, with an area of 912 square miles. Its western boundary
IS the Indus, and its eastein, which is nearly tiMce as long, the Chenab.
It includes a long narrow strip of country lying between the Sanawan
tahszl and the right bank of the Chenab South of the Sanawan tahsJt^
It extends from the Chenab on the east to the Indus on the west. It
IS for the most part low-lying, though less subject to flooding than the
othei tahsJ/s, and is iingated in the hot season by inundation canals.
The population in 1901 was 174,970, compared with 164,782 in 1891.
It contains the towns of Muzaffargarh (population, 4,018), the head-
quarters, and Khangarh (3,621), and 378 villages The land levenue
and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to 3*9 lakhs.

Muzaffargarh Town. — Head-quaiteis of the District and tahsil of
Muzaffargarh, Punjab, situated in 30° f N. and 71° 12' E., in the apex

MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT

of the Sind-Sagar Doab, on the metalled load from Multan to Dera
Ghazi Khan and on the North-Western Railway Population (1901),
4,018. Nawab Muzaffar Khan, the Sadozai governoi of Multan, built
a fort here in 1794-6, which RanjTt Singh took by storm in 1818. The
town also contains a mosque built by Muzaffar Khan. It became the
head-quarters of the District m 1859, when Khangarh was abandoned
The fort of Muzaffar Khan is formed by a circular- shaped 'wall 30 feet
high, enclosing a space with a diameter of 160 yards, while the subuibs,
which surround it on all sides, nearly conceal it fiom view. The wall
has sixteen bastions and battlements all round. The municipality was
created in 1873. The income and expenditure duiing the ten years
ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 10,800 and Rs 10,700 respectively. The
income in 1903-4 was Rs. 14,000, chiefly from octroi, and the expen-
diture was Rs 14,300. The town contains an Anglo-veinacular high
school maintained by Government, a civil hospital, and a cotton-ginning
and pressing and nce-husking factoiy, with 103 employes m 1904.

Muzaffargarh Canals. — An Impenal system of inundation canals
m the Punjab, taking off from the left bank of the Indus and the right
bank of the Chenab, and irrigating portions of Muzaffaigarh District.
They were foi the most part constructed by the native ruleis of the
District, and improved by Sawan Mai, governor under RanjTt Singh.
After annexation the canals remained for many years under the manage-
ment of the Deputy-Commissioner, and were transferred to the Canal
department as a ‘ minor ' woik in 1880. The system of canal clearance
by the labour of the cultivators was finally abolished in 1903, when
occupiers’ rates were intioduced. The Indus series, which is by far the
more important of the two, consists of eight canals with an aggregate
length of 1,138 miles of main, branch, and distributary channels, and
a total average discharge of 2,570 cubic feet per second There are
five canals in the Chenab series, Avith a total length of 232 miles, and
a discharge of 740 cubic feel pei second. The gross area commanded
by the canals is 1,205 squaie miles, of which 1,055 cultivable and
547 nrigable, the area irrigated during the fi\e years ending 1903-4
averaging 457 square miles, of which 366 square miles were watered
from the Indus. To piotect the iirigated countiy, embankments have
been constructed, stretching for 119 miles along the Indus and foi
40 miles along the Chenab. No capital account is kept for the system.
The gross revenue in 1903-4 was 6 lakhs and the net revenue 3-3 lakhs.

Muzaffarnagar District.— District in the Meerut Dnision of the
United Provinces, lying between 29° 10' and 29"^ 45' N and 77° 2^ and
78° Y E., with an aiea of 1,666 square miles. On the north it is
bounded by Saharanpur Distiict, and on the south by Meerut, while
the Ganges sepaiates it on the east from Bijnor, and the Jumna on the
west from the Punjab District of Karnal. Muzaffarnagar consists of

yrUZA FR IRiY. / GAR DISTRICT

a central elevated tiact, flanked on cither side b> the low l}ing land oi
khddar of the Ganges and Jumna. The Ganges khddar is a piecaiious
tract of moist land with scanty cultivation, but gene-

^?hvsi p.fl I

aspects covered with coarse grass and occasional patches

of tamarisk The northern portion, included in the
Gordhanpui Ru^iv/ir, is especially liable to flooding from the SoiAni
liver, which is inci cased by pei eolation fiom the Upper Ganges Canal.
Drams and dams have been constructed with but little success, and the
khddar is chiefly valuable as a giazing ground. The Jumna khddar is
less swampy, but is equally poor, and much of it is covered with dhdk
jungle {Bittea frondosa). The uplands aie divided into foui tracts by
four rivers flowing from north to south On the east is the large tract
lying between the old high bank of the Ganges and the West Kali
Nadi, which is watered by the Upper Ganges Canal This tiact is
generally fertile, but is crossed by a sandy ridge, and sufleis fiom
excessive moisture near the Kali Nadi Between this river and the

Hindan lies another fertile tract, which was immensely improved by
the opening of the Deoband branch of the Ganges Canal in r88o, as
the spring-level is very low. This area is less sandy than the first, but
is crossed by one well-defined belt of sand West of the Hindan, sand
IS comparatively laie, and the tract between this river and the Kaisuni
or Krishnl is uniformly good m the centie, though less fertile in the
north and south. Between the KaisunT and Katha, which maiks the
beginning of the Jumna tract, lies an area which, is flourishing in
the south, but inferior in the north, where population is scarce. This
tract IS watered by the Eastern Jumna Canal

The District consists entirely of the Gangetic alluvium, which vanes
from fine sand to stiff clay

The botany of the District presents no peculiarities. In the north-
west corner dhdk jungle is abundant. About i6 square miles are
under gioves, the mango, pomegianate, and guava being the favourite
trees. Shisham, ja 7 nn 7 i^ and siras are the most common species in
avenues. That ching-gi ass is abundant, but its use is giving way to
that of tiles.

Wolves are fairly common, and wild hog swarm m the khddar and
near the canals. Hog deer are also found near swampy land, and
leopards are occasionally seen Tigers, which were formeily common,
are now very rare.

The climate is comparatively cool, owing to the pioximity of the
hills, and the mean temperatuie is about 76° There can be no
reasonable doubt that the wide extension of irrigation has had a
prejudicial effect on the climate, and its stoppage near towms has
occasionally been necessary in the interest of the public health.

The rainfall over a long series of years has averaged 33 inches,

HISTORY S5

increasing gradually from 30 inches in the ^Yest to about 37 inches
in the east. Large variations fiom the noimal are not very common

Tradition represents Muzaffarnagar as having formed a portion of the
Pandava kingdom, which had its capital at Hastinapui in the adjoining
District of Meerut, and at a moie historical date as History
being included in the dominions of Prithwi Raj, the
Chauhan ruler of Delhi Authentic history first shows us the country
aiouiid Muzaffarnagar at the time of the Musalman conquest m the
thirteenth century, and it remained a dependency of the various
dynasties which ruled at Delhi until the final dissolution of the Mughal
empire The earliest colonists probably consisted of Aryan settlers,
Brahman and Rajput They were succeeded by the Jats, who occupied
the whole southern portion of the Distiict, wheie their descendants
still form the chief landowning class At a latei date, the Gujars took
possession of the poorer tracts which the Jats had left unoccupied,
and they, too, are still to be found as zaminddr^ Finally, with the
Muhammadan inuptions, bodies of Shaikhs, Saiyids, and Pathans
enteied Muzaffarnagai , and parcelled out among themselves the re-
mainder of the territory

Timur paid one of his sanguinaiy visits to the District in 1399, when
all the infidel inhabitants whom he could capture were mercilessly put
to the sword. Under Akbar, Muzaffarnagar was included in the sarkdr
of Saharanpui During the seventeenth centuiy, the Saiyid family of
Barha rose to great eminence, and filled many important offices about
the court. Their ancestors aie said to have settled in Muzaffarnagar
about the year 1350, and to have enjoyed the pationage of the Saiyid
dynasty which ruled at Delhi in the succeeding century. In 1414
Sultan Khizr Khan conferred the contiol of Sahaianpur on Saiyid
Salim, the chief of then fraternity ; and fiom that time foiward they
rose rapidly to territonal power and court influence. Undei Akbai
and his successors, various blanches of the Barha stock became the
leading landowners in the province. They were celebrated as daring
military leaders, being employed by the empeiors on all sei vices of
danger, from the Indus to the Narbada. It was mainly through their
aid that the victory near Agra was won in 1707, by which Bahadur
Shah I made good his claim to the imperial title The part which
they bore in the revolution of 1712, when Farrukh Siyar was elevated
to the throne, belongs to the general history of India. As a rewaid
for the important services rendered on that occasion, Saiyid Abdullah
was appointed Wazir of the empire, and Saiyid Husain All commander-
m-chief. On their fall in 1721, the power of the Barha family began
to wane, until, in 1737, they were almost exterminated, on a pretext of
a rebellious design, by their inveterate enemy the Wazir Kamar-ud-din.

During the whole of the disastrous eighteenth century Muzaffarnagar

MUZAFFARN. I GAR DISTRICT

suffered from the same Sikh incursions which devastated the remainder
of the Upper Doab. The Sikhs were assisted in their raids by the
Gujars, whose semi-nomad life made them ever ready to join in
rebellion against the government of the time. As regularly as the
crops were cut, Sikh chieftains poured their predatory hordes into the
Doab, and levied an organized blackmail The country was divided
between them into regular circuits, and each chieftain collected requisi-
tions from his own circuit only. It was during this anarchic period
that those mud forts began to spring up which became in time so
characteristic of the Upper Doab. In 1788 the District fell into the
hands of the Marathas, under whom the famous military adventurer,
George Thomas, endeavoured with some success to prevent the con-
stant raids across the Jumna. The Begam Sumru of Sardhana in
Meerut District held large possessions m the southern parganas at
the end of the eighteenth century.

After the fall of Aligarh in 1803, whole Doab as far north as
the Siwalik Hills came, without a blow, under the power of the British
A final Sikh invasion occurred in the following year, encouraged by
the advance of Holkai’s forces ; but it was promptly suppressed by
Colonel Burn, who drove the intruders back across the river.

The first incident which broke the course of cnil administration was
the Mutiny of 1857. On the news of the outbreak at Meerut, the
Magistrate of Muzaffarnagar, w^ho was then in weak health and about
to go on leave, issued orders that all the public offices should be closed.
This measure naturally produced a general impression that British lule
was suspended. At first there was no open rebellion, and the semblance
of government was kept up, but plunder and incendiarism \vent on un-
molested. At length, on June 21, the 4th Irregulars lose in revolt and
murdered their commanding ofhcei as well as another European, after
which they marched off to Shamil. Five days later, a party of the
3rd Cavalry arrived at the town , and on July i Mr R M. Edwards
came in from Saharanpur with a body of Gurkhas, and took charge
of the administration. Vigorous measures were at once adopted to
repress crime and collect revenue, the good effects of which became
quickly apparent. The western J>arga 7 ias, however, lemained in open
revolt , and the rebels of Thana Bhawan attacked Shamli, where
they massacred 113 persons in cold blood. Reinforcements shortly
after arrived from Meerut ; and Thana Bhawan, being evacuated by
the rebels, had its w^alls and gates razed to the ground. After this
occurrence no notable event took place, though the troops w^ere kept
perpetually on the move, marching backwards and forwards along the
Ganges, and watching the mutineers on the opposite bank. Ordei was
restored long before the end of the Mutiny.

'Fhere aie no impoiUnt Hindu buildings, but pious IVruhammadans

POPULATION

have elected man} mo^qucb and tombs in diffeient parts of the Distiict.
Seveial buildings at Kairana date fioni the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries j at Majhera, i8 miles south-east of Muzaffarnagar, theie are
some sixteenth-century tombs of the Saiyids ; and at Ghausgarh, 21
miles noith-west, are the remains of a fort built by Najib Khan, the
Rohilla, and a fine mosque erected by his son

The District contains 15 towns and 913 villages. Population has
risen steadily The numbei at the last four enumerations was as
follows (1872) 690,107, (1881) 758,444, (1891) p_. „„„

772,874, and (1901) 877,188 Theie aie foui
tahsils — Muzai FARN AGAR, Kairana, Jansatpi, and Budhana— the
head-quaiters of each being at a town of the same name. The chief
to\Mis are the municipalities of Muzabi-arnagar, the administrative
head-quarteis of the District, Kairana, and Kandrla. The principal
statistics of population in 1901 aic shown below —

Tahiti l

Area in square
miles

Numbei of

M i Z

5 1 ^

9 1 C 3

^ !

Population

Population per
square mile

Percentag^p of
variation in
population be-
tween 1891
and 1901

Number of
persons able to
read and |

write 1

Muzaffarnaijnr

464

264

239,064

15.8

6 . 75 !)

Kan ana .

464

256

224,679

4S4

+ 12 3

.«;)339

Jaubatli

4^1

244

216,41 1

4^0

+ II. 8

4 ) 9 J .5

Budhana

2S7

149

197,034

686

+ 14.1

5.510

Dibtnct total

1,666

91.3

877,188

527

+ 13 5

22,603

Budhana, \vhich has the densest population, has the smallest area ol
inferior khdda?' land. Between 1891 and 1901 the District shared 111
the general prosperity of the Upper Doab, which profited by the high
puces in 1896-7, when famine attacked other parts of the Provinces
Hindus number 607,000, or 69 pei cent, of the total , Muhammadans,
255,000, 01 29 per cent. , and Jains, 10,150, 01 i 2 pei cent. The
number of Aiyas is 3,000, and this form of belief is rapidly increasing.
Moie than 99 pei cent of the population speak Hindustani A small
colony of emigrants fiom Sind still use SindT

Among the Hindus, Chamars (leather-workers and labourers) number
135)000 ) followed by the Jats (83,000), who are excellent cultivators.
Kahars (labouiers, cultivators, and fishermen) and Brahmans, with
47,000 each, come next. Rajputs include 29,000 Hindus and 24,000
Musalmans \ and Banias 29,000, many of whom are Jains. Among
the castes peculiar to the western Districts of the United Provinces are
the Jats \ the Gujars (agriculturists), 31,000, Samis (cultivators), 26,000 j
and Tagas (agnculturists), 10,000. The BauriySs (726) are a cnmmal
tribe peculiar to this Distiict, the members of which steal and pass

MUZAFF. iRNA GAR DISTRICT

base money all over India. They are confined to a tract in the extreme
west of the Distiict, where they were settled by Government. The
most numeious Musalman caste is that of the Julahas or weaveis

(29.000) , but the Saiyids, who have been referred to m the history
of the District, aie veiy influential, though they number only 14,000
Shaikhs number 26,000, Pathans, 12,000, Telis (oil-press ers), 14,000;
and Kassabs (butchers), 14,000 The Jhojhas (8,000) and Garas

(6.000) are excellent cultivators, found chiefly in this District and m
Sahaianpui The population is largely agncultuial, 49 per cent, being
supported by occupations connected with the land. General laboui
supports II per cent and personal services 10 per cent

Out of 1,402 Christians in 1901, natives numbeied 1,259, of whom
nearly 1,200 were Methodists. These are all recent converts of the
American Methodist Mission, which has a branch here. The American
Presbyterian Church also commenced work m 1887.

The most striking feature in the methods of cultivation is the high
standard set by the Jats Manure is not confined to the area im-
Agriculture ^^'^^diately surrounding the village site, but each field
of good land is manured in turn This is largely due
to the importance of the sugar-cane crop, which lequiies much manure
and careful cultivation. The injurious saline efflorescence called reh
IS found most abundantly m the Jumna khadar and near the Eastern
Jumna Canal, and occasionally along the West Kali Nadi and the
Ganges Canal.

The tenures are those found in most parts of the United Provinces.
In 1890 there were 1,347 zamViddn, 1,069 hhatydcham^ and 579
pattiddri mahdls The principal agricultural statistics for 1903-4 are
shown in the following table, areas being in square miles . —

TahsU

Total

Cultn ated

Ii ligated

Cultivable

waste

Muzaffarnagai .

464

334

127

Kailua

464

291

131

Jansath

4 SI

307

Budhana .

287

235

104

Total

1,666

'.167

477

200

The most important food-grams are wheat and gram, the areas under
which m 1903-4 were 445 and 189 square miles respectively, or 38
and 16 per cent, of the net area cropped A more valuable crop is,
however, sugar-cane, with an area of no square miles. Rice, which is
increasing m importance, especially in the case of the finer varieties,
covered 86 square miles. Cotton is a valuable crop, but was giown
on only 22 square miles, chiefly in Budhana. Indigo cultivation has
almost died out

TRADE AND COMMUJyiCATIONS 89

The development of the canal system — especially the extension of
canal-inigation to the tract between the KalT Nadi and Hmdan — has
been an impoitant factor in the agricultural condition; and it has been
assisted by drainage opeiations, which have led to the extension of culti-
vation b> 10,000 acres in the noith-west cornei of the District alone.
The normal aiea cultivated is about 66 per cent, of the whole.
Muzaffarnagar wheat is celebiated thioughout the Provinces, and care-
fully selected seed is expoited to other Distiicts. From 1895 ^90°

loans were freely taken under the Agiicultuiists’ Loans Act, the total
being about Rs. 60,000 , but the annual advances since then have fallen
to about Rs. 1,500 01 Rs r,ooo Advances undei the Land Improve-
ment Loans Act amount to only about Rs. 1,000 annually.

The domestic bleed of cattle is inferioi, and the best cattle aie mi-
poited from the Punjab. ThQ Mdda/^ is, howevci, noted as a giazing
ground where breeders bung cattle. Horse-bi ceding is veiy populai,
and there aie about 20 Government stallions and 600 branded maies
Every yeai in March a large horse show is held at Muzaffainagai, where
about 1,000 animals aie exhibited In 1903 the supervision of hoise-
bieeding in this Distiict was transfeiied fiom the Civil Veteiinary to
the Mihtaiy Remount depaitment. Rajputs, Jats, and Gujars are the
chief breeders Sheep aie kept for then wool and meat, and goats
for milk and meat.

Few Districts are so well protected by canals as Muzaffainagai.
Almost every part of the upland area is commanded, the western
portion by the Eastern Jumna Canal, the centre by the Deoband
branch of the Upper Ganges Canal, and the east by the latter main
canal and the Anupshahi branch. More than 1,000 square miles are
commanded and 450 could be irrigated annually In 1903-4, 340
square miles were iiiigated by canals and 130 by wells, othei sources
supplying only 7 square miles Well-inigation is especially required m
the western tract to supplement the supply from the Eastern Jumna
Canal The usual method of supply is by a leathern bag with a lope
and pulley worked by bullocks , but the Pcisian wheel is used in the
west of the District. The Canal department has constructed and
maintains moie than 500 miles of drains.

The chief mineial product of value is kmikar or nodular limestone,
but this IS scarce. Reh^ a saline efflorescence of varying composition,
is used for glass-making and some other purposes.

There aie few manufactures of impoitance. Cotton-weaving supports
about 3 per cent, of the population. At Kairana calico-prmtmg is
carried on to a small extent for a local market ; and
ornamental cmtains are made there and at a few commimiwtlons.
Other places. Good country blankets are manufac-
tured, especially at Gangeru, and are exported. A coaise blue faience

MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT

IS made at Mlianpui, but this ib infeiior to the products of other
Distiicts ; papier mache is prepaied in small quantities at the same
place. Two small indigo factories are still worked The use of non
sugar-mills has led to the establishment of depots foi then supply and
repaii in many towns.

The most important aiticle of export is wheat, which has obtained
a good name and commands a high puce in the European market.
Nearly 30,000 tons ot wheat were exported annually between 1897 and
1901 from Muzaifainagar and Khatauli stations Large quantities of
uniefined sugar are also expoited, usually by railway, but the tiade
w’lth the Punjab is parti 3 carried on by means of pack-camels. The
other exports are iice and oilseeds

The North-Wester n Raihvay from Delhi to Sahaianpur passes through
the centre of the Distiict from south to noith, and has four stations.
The Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway just touches the District m the
north-east corner, but haidly affects it A light railway is under con-
stiuction from Shahdara in Meerut District to Saharanpui, which w*ill
tap a iich tract m the west of the Distiict

Theie aie only 78 miles of metalled loads and 321 miles of un-
inetalled loads All but 35 miles aie niamtaiiiLd fioin Local funds.
Avenues of trees are kept up along 150 miles (L)od village loads are
incompatible with easy canal-11 iigation, and the local roads aie often
extremely bad, especially m the northern pait of the Jumna Canal tract.
They are best in the south of the District The Ganges khadar also
has pool communications. The Ganges is crossed by tw^o boat bridges,
and theie are two mam femes ovei the Jumna.

The Ganges Canal is used foi the transit of giain and timber, but
the livers are little used as means of communication

Nothing IS known of the history of famines in Muzaffarnagar before
British rule, but it probably suffered less than the Districts farther south
Famine niany severe visitations wLich devastated the

Doab Scarcity was felt in 1 803, and again in 1824, and
famine in 1837, when Rs 40,000 of revenue was remitted. The Eastern
Jumna Canal was opened in 1830, and the Ganges Canal in 1854
Owing chiefly to the latter, the famine of 1 860-1 was not much felt.
The Anupshahi branch of the Ganges Canal was, however, commenced
as a relief work. In 1868-9 the protection of the canals was even
more marked, and large stores of gram existed, while distress was
further relieved by the demand foi work on the Sind, Punj'ab, and
Delhi (now called the North-Western) Railway. Numbers of immi-
grants poured in from Bikanei and Western Rajputana. Since 1869
the District has practically escaped famine; and high prices in 1877,
1896, and 1900 were a source of profit to the agricultural inhabitants,
though immigrants in distressed circumstances were numerous. The

ADMimSmA TION

opening of the Deoband branch canal in 1880 has further protected
an important tract

The District is divided into four tahstls and seventeen parganas.
The normal District staff includes, besides the Col-
lector, four Assistants with full powers, one of whom
IS a Covenanted Civilian, when available, the rest being Deputy-
Collectors recruited in India.

There are two Munsifs in the District, which is included in the
jurisdiction of the Subordinate Judge of Saharanpur and in the Civil
and Session Judgeship of the same place Muzaffainagar has a bad
reputation for murders and cattle-theft, while gang dacoities are not
uncommon. The Gujars are particularly turbulent, and the Bauriyas
and gipsy tnbes— such as Sansiyas, Kanjars, and Nats — are respon-
sible for many thefts and burglaries. Infanticide was formerly very
prevalent, but is not suspected now.

The District was acquired in 1803, and at first part was included in
Saharanpur District, and part administered by the Resident at Delhi.
In 1824 the present District was formed by creating a sub-collectorship
at Muzaffarnagar, which became a sepaiate District m 1826. The early
settlements thus formed part of those for Saharanpur. Quinquennial
settlements were made in 1825 and 1830, the latter being extended till
1840 Operations for the first regular settlement began with measure-
ments in 1836 and 1838, when the soil was classified into circles and
average rent-rates were obtamed to form the basis of assessment The
rent-rates were really calculated from valuations of produce and the
method of division of that produce, as rent was generally paid in kind,
and in many villages where the tenure was bhaiydchara there were no
rents, as the co-sharers cultivated practically the whole area. The total
demand was 11-2 lakhs, calculated at two-thirds of the rental ‘assets,’
and the settlement lasted twenty years. War, famine, and pestilence
swept over the District before the next settlement operations began in
i860, and the new revenue at half ‘assets’ remained at 11*2 lakhs.
In this settlement rent rates were calculated on an average of the
rates paid in previous years. Inquiries were made with a view to
making a permanent settlement, which was not granted, and the
assessment was raised in various tracts in 1870 when it was found
inadequate. The last settlement was completed m 1892 for thirty
years, and the revenue was fixed at 15-1 lakhs, rising to 15 6 lakhs.
The assessment was based on recorded rents, corrected where
necessary; but the area for which rents were not paid was as high

47*5 cent, of the total, chiefly owing to the large proprietary
cultivation The revenue amounted to 48 per cent, of the assessable
‘assets.’ The incidence varied from Rs. 1-3 to Rs. 3-6 per acre,
the average being Rs. 2-6,

VOL. xvin. G

MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT

The collections on account of land revenue and total revenue are
shown below, in thousands of rupees . —

1880-1

1890-1

IQOO-l

190W

Land revenue

Total revenue

12,20

12,18
18, or

15,55

22,05

T5.59

21,92

There are three municipalities — Muzaffarnagar, Kandhla, and
Kairana — and eleven towns are administered under Act XX of 1856
In 1903-4 the District board had an income of i i lakhs and an
expenditure of 1-4 lakhs. The expenditure on roads and buildings
was Rs. 64,000.

The District Superintendent of police is assisted by three inspectors,
and is in charge of 75 officers and 296 men of the regular police,
besides 209 municipal and town police, and 1,277 village, road, and
canal watchmen. The average daily number of prisoners in the District
jail in 1903 was 168.

The Distiict takes a medium place in the Provinces as regards the
literacy of its population, of whom 2 6 per cent. (4*7 males and o*i
females) can read and write. In 18 80-1 there were 135 schools under
Government inspection, attended by 3,779 pupils, and in 1 900-1 156
schools with 6,366 pupils. In 1903-4, 194 such schools contained
7,404 pupils including 192 girls, besides 398 private schools with 5,533
scholars, of whom 157 were girls. Of the public schools, 2 were
managed by Government and 114 by the District and municipal boards.
Out of a total expenditure of Rs. 32,000, Rs. 4,000 was derived from
fees and Rs. 28,000 from Local and municipal funds

In 1903 there were seven hospitals and dispensaries, with accom-
modation for 65 m-patients. The number of cases treated was 70,000,
of whom 1,000 were in-patients, and 4,^600 operations were performed.
The total expenditure was Rs. 12,600, chiefly met from Local and
municipal funds

In 1903-4, 29,000 persons were vaccinated, representing 33 per
1,000 of the population. Vaccination is compulsory only m the
municipalities.

[H. R. Nevill, District Gazetteer (1903)3 J. O. Miller, Settleme^it
Report {1892).]

Muzaffarnagar TahsH. — Central tahsil of Muzaffarnagar District,
United Provinces, stretching north-east to the Ganges, and l3ning
between 29° 22' and 29° 45'' N. and 77° 27' and 78° f E., with an area
of 464 square miles It comprises five parganas Muzaffarnagar,
Baghra, Charthawal, Pur Chhapar, and Gordhanpur. The population
has risen from 206,496 m 1891 to 239,064 in 1901. The taksll con-
tains 264 villages and three towns . namely, Muzaffarnagar (popu-

MUZAFFARFUR DISTRICT

lation, 23,444), the District and head-quarters, Pur (6,384), and

Charthawal (6,236). In 1903-4 the demand for land revenue was
Rs. 4,03,000, and for cesses Rs. 51,000 The iahstl lies chiefly on
the upland area of the District , but pargana Gordhanpur, situated m
the Ganges khadar^ is a low-lying swampy tract in a state of chronic
depression in spite of attempts to dram it. In 1894 the inhabitants
of this pargana were removed, owing to the fear that the Gohna Lake
would flood the whole area when it burst ; and the tract is still largely
waste. The tahsll is irrigated by the Upper Ganges Main Canal
and the Deoband branch. In 1903-4 the area under cultivation was
334 square miles, of which 127 were irrigated

Muzaffarnagar Town. — Head-quarters of the District and taJisll
of the same name, United Provinces, situated in 29° 28' N. and 77®
41' E , on the mam road from Meerut to Roorkee and Hard war, and
on the Noith-Western Railway. The population is increasing rapidly .
(1872) 10,793, (1881) 15,080, (1891) 18,166, and (1901) 23,444. In
1901 Hindus numbered 12,847 Musalmans 9,519. The town
was founded by the son of Muzaffar Khan, Khan-i-Jahan, in the reign
of Sh^ Jahan, about 1633, close to the site of an older town known
as Sarwart It remained a place of little importance, until in 1824 it
became the head-quarters of a sub-collectorship of Saharanpur District,
and two years later Muzaffarnagar District was formed. It is a closely-
built town, crowded with small streets, but is well situated on high
land above the Kali Nadi, to which the drainage is carried. Besides
the ordinary offices, there are a town hall, high and middle schools,
and male and female hospitals. There are no resident officials besides
those of the ordinary District staff. The American Presbyterian and
Reformed Methodist Missions have branches here. Muzaffarnagar
was constituted a municipality in 1872. The income and expenditure
during the ten years ending 1901 averaged Rs. 22,000. In 1903-4 the
income was Rs. 35,000, chiefly derived from octroi (Rs. 21,000) and
house tax (Rs. 6,000) , and the expenditure was Rs. 46,000. A drainage
and paving project was completed in 1903 at a cost of more than
Rs. 30,000, and the town is now very well drained The place owes
its prosperity largely to the export trade in wheat and sugar, and the
only considerable manufacture is that of blankets. Every year in
March a horse show is held here The high school contains 230
pupils, the tahslli school 160, and a girls^ school 35.

Muzaffarpur District. — District in the Patna Division of Bengal,
lying between 25® 29' and 26° 53' N. and 84® 53' and 85® 50' E., with
an area of 3,035 ^ square miles. It is bounded on the north by the
State of Nepal; on the east by Darbhanga District; on the south

^ The area shown m the Censtts Report of 1901 is 3,004 square miles. The figuies
in the text are those ascertamed in the recent survey operations.

MUZAFFARPUR DISTRICT

by the Ganges, which divides it from Patna ^ and on the west by
Champaran and the river Gandak, which separates it from Saran.

The District is an alluvial plain, intersected with streams and for the
most part well watered. It is divided by the Baghmati and Burhl or
Little Gandak rivers into three distinct tracts. The
aspectf^ countiy south of the latter is relatively high ; but
there are slight depressions in places, especially
towards the south-east, where there are some lakes, the largest of
which IS the Tal Baraila. The dodh between the Little Gandak
and the Baghmati is the lowest portion of the District, and is liable
to frequent inundations Here too the continual shifting of the
rivers has left a large number of semi-circular lakes. The area north
of the Baghmati running up to the bordeis of Nepal is a low-lying
marshy plain, traversed at intervals by ridges of higher ground. Of the
two boundary streams, the Ganges requires no remark. The other,
the Great Gandak, which joins the Ganges opposite Patna, has no
tributaries in this part of its course , in fact, the drainage sets away
from it, and the country is protected from inundation by artificial
embankments The lowest discharge of water into the Ganges towards,
the end of March amounts to 10,391 cubic feet per second , the highest
recorded flood volume is 266,000 cubic feet per second. The river is
nowhere fordable , it is full of rapids and whirlpools, and is navigable
with difficulty. The principal rivers which intersect the District are the
Little Gandak, the Baghmati, the Lakhandai, and the Baya. The Little
Gandak (also known as Harha, Sikrana, Burhl Gandak, or the Muzaffar-
pur river) crosses the boundary from Champaran, 20 miles north-west
of Muzaffarpur town, and flows in a south-easterly direction till it leaves
the District near Pusa, 20 miles to the south-east \ it ultimately falls
into the Ganges opposite Monghyr. The Baghmati, which rises near
Katmandu in Nepal, enters the District 2 miles north of Manim Ghat,
and after flowing in a more or less irregular southerly course for some
30 miles, stakes off in a south-easterly direction almost parallel to the
Little Gandak, and crossing the District, leaves it near Hatha, 20 miles

east of Muzaffarpur. Being a hill stream and flowing on a ridge, it
rises very quickly after heavy rains and sometimes causes much damage
by overflowing its banks. A portion of the country north of Muzafifar-
pur town is protected by the Turk! embankment. In the dry season
the Baghmati is fordable and in some places is not more than knee
deep. Its tributaries are numerous : the Adhwara or Little Baghmati,
Lai Bakya, Bhurengi, Lakhandai, Dhaus, and Jhim. Both the Bagh-
mati and Little Gandak are very liable to change their courses. The
Lakhandai enters the District from Nepal near Itharwa (18 miles north
of Sitamarhi), It is a small stream until it has been joined by the
Sauran and Basiad. Flowing south it passes through Sitamarhi, where

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

It is crossed by a fine bridge, and then continuing in a south-easterly
direction, joins the Baghmati 7 or 8 miles south of the Darbhanga-
Muzaffarpur road, which is carried over it by an iron-girder bridge
The stream rises and falls very quickly, and its current is rapid The
Baya issues out of the Gandak near Sahibganj (34 miles north-west of
Muzaffarpur town), and flows in a south-easterly direction, leaving the
District at Bajitpur 30 miles south of Muzaffarpur town. The head
of the stream is apt to silt up, but is at present open The Baya is
largely fed by drainage from the marshes, and attains its greatest height
when the Gandak and the Ganges are both in flood , it joins the latter
river a few miles south of Dalsingh Saiai in Darbhanga District.

The most important of the minor streams are the Purana Dar
Baghmati (an old bed of the B^hmati stretching fiom Mallahi on the
frontier to Belanpur Ghat, where it joins the present stream) and the
Adhwara. These flow southwards from Nepal, and are invaluable for
irrigation in years of drought, when numerous dams are thrown across
them. The largest sheet of water m the District is the Tal Baraila in
the south ; its area is about 20 square miles, and it is the haunt of
innumerable wild duck and other water-fowl.

The soil of the District is old alluvium , beds of kankar or nodular
limestone of an inferior quality are occasionally found

The District contains no forests , and except for a few very small
patches of jungle, of which the chief constituents are the red cotton-tree
{Bombax malabaricum\ khatr {Acacia Catechu), and sissu {Dalbergia
Shsoo), with an undergrowth of euphorbiaceous and urticaceous
shrubs and tree weeds, and occasional large stretches of grass land inter-
spersed with smaller spots of usar^ the ground is under close cultiva-
tion, and besides the crops carries only a few field-weeds. Near villages
small shrubberies may be found containing mango, sissu, Eugenia
Jambolana, various species of Ficus, an occasional tamarind, and
a few other semi-spontaneous and more or less useful species. The
numerous and extensive mango groves form one of the most sti iking
features of the District. Both the palmyra {Bomssus flabeilifer)
and the date-palm {Phoenix sylvestns) occur planted and at times
self-sown, but neither in great abundance. The field and roadside
weeds include various grasses and sedges, chiefly species of Panicum
and Cyperus , in waste corners and on railway embankments thickets
of sissu, derived from both seeds and root-suckers, very rapidly appear.
The sluggish streams and ponds are filled with water-weeds, the sides
being often fnnged by reedy grasses and bulrushes, with occasionally
tamarisk bushes intermixed.

The advance of civilization has driven back the larger animals into
the jungles of Nepal, and the District now contains no wild beasts
except hog and a few wolves and nilgai. Crocodiles infest some of

MUZAFFARPUR DISTRICT

the livers. Snakes abound, the most common being the karait
[Bimgarus caeruleus) and gohiwian or cobra {Data tripudians).

Dry westerly winds are experienced in the hot season, but the
temperature is not excessive. The mean maximum ranges from 7 3° m
January to 97° in April and May, and falls to 74° December, the
temperature dropping rapidly in November and Decembei. The mean
minimum varies fiom 49° m January to 79° in June, July, and August
The annual rainfall averages 46 inches, of which 7*4 inches fall in June,
12 4 in July, 113 in August, and 7 6 in September , cyclonic stoims
are apt to move northwards into the District in the two last-named
months. Humidity at Muzaffarpur is on an average 67 pei cent in
INIarch, 66 in April, and 76 in May, and varies from 84 to 91 per cent
in other months.

One of the marked peculiarities of the nvers and streams of this part
of the country is that they flow on ridges raised above the surrounding
country by the silt which they have brought down. • Muzaffarpur
District is thus subject to seveie and widespiead inundations from
their overflow. In 1788 a disastrous flood occurred which, it was
estimated, damaged one-fifth of the area sown with winter crops, while
so many cattle died of disease that the cultivation of the remaining
aiea was seriously hampered. The Great Gandak, which was formerly
quite unfetteied towards the east, used regularly to flood the country
along its banks and not infrequently swept acioss the southern half
of the District. From the beginning of the nineteenth century attempts
were made to raise an embankment strong enough to protect the
country from inundation, but without success, until in the famine of
1874 the existing embankment was strengthened and extended, thus
effectually checking the incursions of the river. The tiact on the
south of the Baghmati is also partially protected by an embankment
fiist raised in i8ro, but the dodh between the Baghmati and the Little
Gandak is still liable to inundation Heavy floods occurred in 1795,
1867, 1871, 1883, and 1898. Anothei severe flood visited the north
of the District in August, 1902. The town of Sltamarhi and the dodb
between the Little Gandak and the Baghmati suffered severely, and
It was reported that 60 lives were lost and 14,000 houses damaged or
destroyed, w^hile a laige number of cattle weie drowned. In Sltamarhi
Itself 700 houses were damaged and 12,000 maunds of gram destroyed,
and it was estimated that half of the maize crop and almost half of the
marud crop were lost Muzaffarpur town, which formerly suffered
seveiely fiom these floods, is now protected by an embankment. One of
the most disastrous floods known in the history of Muzaffarpur occurred
in igo6, when the area inundated comprised a quarter of the whole
District namely, 750 square miles and over 1,000 villages. Great distress
ensued among the cultivators, and relief measures were necessitated.

POPULATION

In ancient times the north of the District formed part of the old
kingdom of Mithila, while the south corresponded to Vaisali, the
capital of which was probably at Basarh in the Lai-
ganj thdna, Mithila passed successively undei the
Pal and the Sen dynasties, and was conquered by Muhammad-i-Bakht-
yar Khiljl in 1203 From the middle of the fourteenth century it was
ruled by a line of Brahman kings, until it was incorporated in the
Mughal empire in 1556. Under the Mughals, Hijipur and Tirhut
were separate sarkdrs j and the town of Hajipur, which was then a
place of strategical importance owing to its position at the confluence
of the Ganges and the Gandak, w^as the scene of several rebellions.
After the acquisition by the British of the Dlwani of Bengal, Bihar,
and Orissa in 1765, Subah Bihar was retained as an independent
revenue division, and in 1782 Tirhut (including HajTpur) was made
into a separate Collector ate. This was split up m 1875 into the two
existing Districts of Muzaffaipur and Darbhanga. During the Mutiny
of 1857 a small number of native troops at Muzaffarpur town rose,
plundered the Collector’s house and attacked the treasury and jail, but
weie driven off by the police and decamped towards Siwan in Saran
District without causing any further disturbance.

Archaeological interest centres round Basarh, which hsis plausibly
been identified as the capital of the ancient kingdom of Vaisali

The population of the piesent area increased from 2,246,752 m 1872
to 2,583,404 in 1881, to 2,712,857 in 1891, and to 2,754,790 in 1901
The recoided growth between 1872 and 1881 was p^p^lation
due in part to the defects m the Census of 1872.

The District is very healthy, except perhaps in the country to the north
of the Baghmati, which is more marshy than that to the south of it.
Deaf-mutism is prevalent along the course of the Burhi Gandak and
B^hmati rivers.

The principal statistics of the Census of 1901 aie shown below —

Subdivision

Area in square
miles

Number of

Population

Population per
square mile

Percentage of
\ anation m
population be-
t\\een iSgi
and iqoi

Number of
persons able to
read and

TV rue

Villages.

Muzaffarpur

1,221

1,712

1,050,027

860

- 2 3

45.871

Sitamarhi

1,016

996

986,582

971

+ C.7

29,992

Hajlpur ,

798

r,4T2

'718,181

900

-1- 0 6

31,702

District total

3 »o 35

4 ,T 20

2 , 754.790

908

+ ^ 5

107,565

The four towns are Muzaffarpur, the head-quarters, Hajipur,
Lalganj, and Sitamarhi. Muzaffaipur is more densely populated

MUZAFFARPUR DISTRICT

than any other District m Bengal. The inhabitants are very evenly
distributed , in only a small tract to the west does the density per
square mile fall below 900, while in no part of the District does it
exceed 1,000. Every ihdna in the great rice-growing tract north of the
Baghmati showed an increase of population at the last Census, while
every thma south of that river, except Hajlpur on the extreme south,
showed a decrease. In the former tract population has been growing
steadily since the first Census in 1872, and it attracts settlers both
from Nepal and from the south of the District. The progress has
been greatest in the Sitamarhi and Sheohar thmas which march with
the Nepal frontier. A decline in the Muzaffarpur tJidna is attributed
to its having suffered most from cholera epidemics, and to the fact that
this tiact supplies the majority of the persons who emigrate to Lower
Bengal in search of work. The District as a whole loses largely by
migration, especially to the metropolitan Districts, Pumea, and North
Bengal. The majority of these emigrants are employed as earth-
workers and /izZ^z-bearers, while others are shopkeepers, domestic
servants, constables, peons, &c. The vernacular of the District is the
Maithili dialect of Bihail. Musalmans speak a form of AwadhI
Hindi known as Shekhol or MusalmanT. In 1901 Hindus numbered
2,416,4x5, or 87-71 per cent of the total population; and Musalmans
337,641, or 12 26 per cent.

The most nunieious Hindu castes aie Ahlrs or Goalas (335,000),
Babhans (200,000), Dosadhs (187,000), Rajputs (176,000), Koins
(147,000), Chamars (136,000), and Kurmis (126,000) , while Brahmans,
Dhanuks, Kandus, Mallahs, Nunias, Tantis, and Telis each number
between 50,000 and 100,000 Of the Muhammadans, 127,000 are
Shaikhs and 85,000 Jolahas, while Dhunias and Kunjras are also
numerous. Agriculture supports 76-4 per cent, of the population,
industries 6-2 per cent., commerce 0-5 per cent., and the professions
0*7 per cent,

Christians number 719, of whom 341 are natives Four Christian
missions are at work in Muzaffarpur town : the German Evangelical
Lutheran Mission, founded in 1840, which maintains a primary school
for destitute orphans , the American Methodist Episcopal Missionary
Society, which possesses two schools; a branch of the Bettiah Roman
Catholic Mission ; and an independent lady missionary engaged in
zandna work.

The tract south of the Little Gandak is the most fertile and nchest
portion of the District. The low-lying dodb between Little Gandak

Agriculture Baghmati is mainly productive of rice,

though rabi and hhadcn harvests are also reaped.
The tract to the north of the Baghmati contains excellent paddy land,
and the staple crop is winter rice, though good rabi and bkadoi crops

AGRICULTURE

are also raised in parts. In different parts of the District diffeient
names are given to the soil^ according to the proportions of sand, clay,
iron, and saline matter it contains. Ultimately all can be grouped
under four heads : bahundar (sandy loam) , maiiydri (clayey soil) ;
bd 7 igar (lighter than matiydri and containing an admixture of sand) ;
and lastly patches of usar (containing the saline efflorescence known
as reh) found scattered over the District. To the south of the Little
Gandak bahundar pievails, in the dodb the soil is chiefly mattyari,
while north of the B^hmati bdngar predominates to the east of the
Lakhandai river and matiydn to the ’west. Rice is chiefly grown on
matiydn soil, but it also does well in low-lying hangar lands, and the
finer varieties thrive on such lands. Good rahi crops of wheat, barley,
oats, rahar^ pulses, oilseeds, and edible roots grow luxuriantly in
bahundar soil, and to this reason is ascribed the superior fertility of
the south of the District. Bhadol crops, especially maize, which cannot
stand too much moisture, also prosper in bahundar^ which quickly
absorbs the surplus water. Indigo does best in bahundar^ but bdngar
is also suitable.

The chief agricultural statistics for 1903-4 are given below, areas
being in square miles * —

Subdivision

Total

Cultivated

Cultivable

■waste

Muzaffarpur . ,

1,221

1,025

Sitamarhi

1,016

897

Hajipur

798

619

Total

3,035

3,541

170

It is estimated that 1,075 square miles, or 42 per cent, of the net
cultivated area, are twice cropped.

The principal food-crop is rice, grown on 1,200 square miles, of which
winter rice covers 1,029 square miles. The greater part of the rice
is transplanted. Other food-grains, includir^ pulses, khesdrt, china,
rahar, kodon, peas, oats, masuri, sdwdn, kauni, urd, mung, janerd
{Holcus sorghum), and kurthl (DoUchos biflorus) cover 804 square miles.
Barley occupies 463 square miles, a larger area than in any other
Bengal District; makai or maize, another very important crop, 256
square miles, marud, 129 square miles; wheat, 114 square miles;
gram, 68 square miles ; and miscellaneous food-crops, including alud
or yams, suthnl, and potatoes, are grown on 122 square miles. Oil-
seeds, principally linseed, are raised on 86 square miles. Other impor-
tant crops are indigo, sugar-cane, poppy, tobacco, and thatching-grass.
Muzaffarpur is, after Champaran, the chief indigo District in Bengal ;
but its cultivation here, as elsewhere, is losing ground owing to the

100

MUZAFFARFUE DISTRICT

competition of the synthetic dye. European indigo planters have of
late been turning their attention to other crops, m particular sugar-cane
and rhea. Poppy is cultivated, as in other parts of Bihar, on a system
of Government advances^ the total area under the crop in 1903-4 was
12,400 acres, and the out-turn was 35 tons of opium. Cow-dung and
indigo refuse are used as manure for special crops, such as sugar-cane,
tobacco, poppy, and indigo

Cultivation is far more advanced in the south than in the north of
the District , but up to the present there appears to be no indication
of any progress or impiovement in the method of cultivation, except in
the neighbourhood of indigo factories. Over 2 lakhs of rupees was
advanced under the Agriculturists’ Loans Act on the occasion of the
famine of 1896, but otherwise this Act and the Land Improvement
Loans Act have been made little use of.

The District has always borne a high reputation for its cattle, and
the East India Company used to get draught bullocks for the Ordnance
department here. Large numbers of animals are exported every year
from the Sitamarhi subdivision to all parts of North Bihar It is said
that the breed is deteriorating In the north, floods militate against
success m breeding , and in the District as a whole, though there is
never an absolute lack of food for cattle even in the driest season, the
want of good pasture grounds compels the cultivator to feed his cattle
very largely in his haihdn^ or cattle yard. A large cattle fair is held at
SitSmarhi every April.

The total area irrigated is 47 square miles, of which 30 are irrigated
from wells, 2 from private canals, 6 from tanks or ahars^ and 9 fiom
other sources, mainly by damming rivers. There are no Government
canals. In the north there is a considerable opening for the pain and
dhar system of irrigation so prevalent in Gaya District, but the want of
an artificial water-supply is not great enough to induce the people to
provide themselves with it

Kankar^ a nodular limestone of an inferior quality, is found and is
used for metalling roads. The District is nch in saliferous earth, and
a special caste, the Nunias, earn a scanty livelihood by extracting salt-
petre; 98,000 maunds of saltpetre were produced in 1903-4, the salt
educed during the manufacture being 6,000 maunds.

Coarse cloth, carpets, pottery, and mats are manufactured , pdikis,
cart-wheels, and other articles of general use are made by carpenters in
Trade and south, and rough cutlery at Lawarpur. But by

cornmnnications. important industry is the manufacture

of indigo. Indigo was a product of North Bihar long
before the advent of the British, but its cultivation by European
methods appears to have been started by Mr. Grand, Collector of
Tirhut, in 1782. In 178S there were five Europeans in possession

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS

lOI

of indigo works. In 1793 the number of factoiies in the District had
increased to nine, situated at Daudpur, Sarahia Dhuli, Atharshahpur,
Kantai, Motipur, Deoria, and Bhawara. In 1850 the Revenue Sur-
veyor found 86 factories in Tirhut, several of which were then used foi
the manufacture of sugar and were subsequently converted into indigo
concerns In 1897 the Settlement officer enumerated 23 head factories,
with an, aveiage of 3 outworks under each, connected with the Bihar
Indigo Planters’ Association, besides 9 independent factories. The
area under indigo had till then been steadily on the increase, reaching
in that year 87,258 acres, while the industry was estimated to employ
a daily average of 35,000 labourers throughout the year. Since then,
owing to the competition of artificial dye, the price of natuial indigo
has fallen and the area under cultivation has rapidly diminished, being
estimated in 1903-4 at 48,000 acres. Though only about 3 per cent
of the cultivated area is actually sown with indigo, the planters are in
the position of landlords over more than a sixth of the District. They
are attempting to meet the fall m prices by more scientific methods of
cultivation and manufacture, and many concerns now combine the
cultivation of other crops with indigo. Indigo is cultivated either by
the planter through his servants under the ztraf or home-farm system,
or else by tenants under what is known as the asamiwar system (asami
means a tenant), under the direction of the factory servants , m both
cases the plant is cut and carted by the planter. Under the latter
system, the planter supplies the seed and occasionally also gives
advances to the tenant, which are adjusted at the end of the year.
The plant, when cut, is fermented m masonry vats, and oxidized either
by beating or by currents of steam. The dye thus precipitated is
boiled and dried into cakes. In 1903-4 the out-turn of indigo was
11,405 maunds, valued at 15*97 lakhs.

The recent fall in prices has resulted in the revival of the manu-
facture of sugar. A company acquired in 1 900-1 the indigo estates
of Ottur (Athar) and Agrial in Muzaffarpur and Siraha in Champaran
District, for the purpose of cultivating sugar-cane. Cane-crushing mills
and sugar-refining plant of the most modern type were erected at those
places and also at Barhoga in Saran. These factories are capable of
crushing 75,000 tons of cane in 100 working days, and of refining
about 14,000 tons of sugar during the remainder of the year. Twelve
Europeans and 500 to 600 natives a day are employed in the factories
during the crushing season, and 10 Europeans and many thousands of
natives throughout the year on the cultivation of the estates and the
manufacture of sugar Besides this, the neighbouring planters contract
to grow sugar-cane and sell it to the company. It is claimed that the
sugar turned out is of the best quality, and a ready sale for it has been
found in the towns of Northern India.

102

MUZAFFARPUR DISTRICT

The principal exports are indigo, sugar, oilseeds, saltpetre, hides, ght^
tobacco, opium, and fruit and vegetables. The main imports are salt,
European and Indian cotton piece-goods and hardware, coal and coke,
kerosene oil, cereals, such as maize, millets, &c., nee and other food-
grains, and indigo seed. Most of the exports find their way to Cal-
cutta. The bulk of the traffic is now earned by the railway ; and the
old river marts show a tendency to decline, unless they happen
to be situated on the line of railway, like Mehnar, Bhagwanpur, and
Bairagnia, which are steadily growing in importance. Nepal exports
to Muzaffarpur food-grains, oilseeds, timber, skins of sheep, goats, and
cattle, and saltpetre , and receives in return sugar, salt, tea, utensils,
kerosene oil, spices, and piece-goods. A considerable cart traffic thus
goes on from and to Nepal, and between Saran and the north of the
District The chief centres of trade are Muzaffarpur town on the
Little Gandak (navigable in the rains for boats of about 37 tons up
to Muzaffarpur), Hajlpur (a railway centre), Lalganj (a river mart
on the Great Gandak), Sitamarhi (a great rice mart), Bairagnia and
Sursand (grain marts for the Nepal trade), Mehnar, Sahibganj,
Sonbarsa, Bela, Majorganj, Mahuwa, and Kantai. The trade of the
Distnct IS in the hands of Marwaris and local Baniya castes.

The District is served by four distinct branches of the Bengal and
North-Western Railway The first, which connects Simaria Ghat on
the Ganges with Bettiah in Champaran District, runs in a south-easterly
direction through Muzaffarpur District, passing the head-quarters town.
The second branch enters the District at the Sonpur bridge over the
Great Gandak, passes through Hajipur, and runs eastwards to Katihar
m Purnea District, where it joins the Eastern Bengal State Railway ; it
intersects the first branch at B^ni junction in Monghyr District. The
third runs from Hajipur to Muzaffarpur town, thus connecting the first
two branches. The fourth, which leaves the first-mentioned branch
line at Samastipur in Darbhanga District, enters Muzaffarpur near
Kamtaul and passing through Sitamarhi town has its terminus at Bai-
ragnia. Communication with that place is, however, at present kept
open only during the dry season by a temporary bridge over the Bagh-
mati about 3 miles away ; but the construction of a permanent structure
is contemplated. The District is well provided with roads, and espe-
cially with feeder roads to the railways. Including 542 miles of village
tracks, it contains in all 76 miles of metalled and 1,689 miles of
unmetalled roads, all of which aie maintained by the District board.
The most important road is that from Hajipur through Muzaffarpur
and Sitamarhi towns to Sonbarsa, a large mart on the Nepal frontier.
Important roads also connect Muzaffarpur town with Darbhanga, Moti-
hto, and Saran, i r main roads in all radiating from Muzaffarpur. The
subdivisional head-quarters of Hajipur and Sitamarhi are also connected

FAMINE

103

by good roads with their police ikdnas and outposts. Most of the
minor rivers are bridged by masonry structures, while the larger ones
are generally crossed by femes, of which there are 67 in the Distnct.
The Little Gandak close to Muzafifarpur town on the Sitamarhi road
is crossed by a pontoon bridge 850 feet in length.

During the rainy season, when the rivers are high, a considerable
quantity of traffic is still carried in country boats along the Great and
Little Gandak and Baghmati rivers Sd! timber (S/iorea robusta) from
Nepal is floated down the two latter, and also a large quantity of
bamboos. The Ganges on the south is navigable throughout the year,
and a daily service of steamers plies to and from Goalundo.

The terrible famine of 1769-70 is supposed to have carried off
a third of the entire population of Bengal. Another great famine
occurred in 1866, in which it was estimated that famine
200,000 people died throughout Bihar, this was
especially severely felt in the extreme north of the District. Muzaf-
farpur again suffered severely in the famine of 1874, when deficiency
of rain m September, 1873, and its complete cessation m October, led
to a serious shortness in the winter rice crop. Relief works were
opened about the beginning of 1874. No less than one-seventh of
the total population was in receipt of relief. There was some scarcity
in 1876, when no relief was actually required, in 1889, when the nee
crop again failed and relief was given to about 30,000 persons ] and in
1891-2, when on the average 5,000 persons daily were relieved for
a period of 19 weeks. Then came the famine of 1896-7, the greatest
famine of the nineteenth century. On this occasion, owing to better
communications and their improved material condition, the people
showed unexpected powers of resistance. Three test works started
in the Sitamarhi subdivision in November, 1896, failed to attract
labour, and it was not till the end of January that distress became in
any sense acute. The number of persons m receipt of relief then rose
rapidly till the end of May, when 59,000 persons with 4,000 dependants
were on relief works, and 59,000 more were m receipt of gratuitous
relief. The number thus aided increased to 72,000 in July, but the
number of relief workers had meanwhile declined, and the famine was
over by the end of September. The total expenditure on relief works
was 5 64 lakhs and on gratuitous relief 4*91 lakhs, m addition to which
large advances were made under the Agnculturists’ Loans Act. The
import of rice into the District during the famine was nearly 33,000
tons, chiefly Burma rice from Calcutta. The whole of the Distnct
suffered severely, except the south of the Hajlpur subdivision, but the
brunt of the distress was borne by the Sitamarhi subdivision.

For administrative purposes the District is divided into three sub-
divisions, with head-quarters at Muzaffarpur, Hajipur, and Sita-

104

MUZAFFARPUR DISTRICT

MARHi. The staff subordinate to the District Magistrate-Collector at
head-quarters consists of a Joint-Magistrate, an Assistant Magistrate, and
nine Deputy-Magistrate-Collectors, while the Hajlpur
Administration. Sitamarhi subdivisions are each in charge of

an Assistant Magistrate-Collector assisted by a Sub-Deputy-Collector
The Superintending Engineer and the Executive Engineer of the
Gandak division are stationed at Muzaffaipur.

The civil courts are those of the District Judge (who is also Judge of
Champaran), three Sub-Judges and two Munsifs at Muzaffarpur, and
one Munsif each at Sitamarhi and Hajlpur. Criminal courts include
those of the District and Sessions Judge and District Magistrate, and
the above-mentioned Joint, Assistant, and Deputy-Magistrates. When
the District first passed under British rule it was in a very lawless state,
overrun by hordes of banditti. This state of affairs has long ceased.
The people are, as a rule, peaceful and law-abiding, and heinous
offences and crimes of violence are compaiatively rare.

At the time of the Permanent Settlement in 1793 ^^e total area of the
estates assessed to land revenue in Tirhut was 2,476 square miles, or
40 per cent, only of its area of 6,343 square miles, and the total land
revenue was 9*84 lakhs, which gives an incidence of 9 annas per acre ,
the demand for the estates in Muzaffarpur District alone was 436 lakhs
In 1822 operations were undertaken for the resumption of invalid
levenue-free grants, the result of which, was to add 6*77 lakhs to the
revenue roll of Tirhut, of which 3*18 lakhs fell to Muzaffarpur. Owing
to partitions and resumptions, the number of estates in Tirhut increased
from 1,331 in 1790, of which 799 were in Muzaffarpur, to 5,186 in
1850 Since that date advantage has been taken of the provisions of
the partition laws to a most remarkable extent, and by 1904-5 the
number of revenue- paying estates had risen to no less than 21,050, a
larger number than in any other Bengal District. Of the total, all but
49 with a demand of Rs. 16,735 were permanently settled. The total
land revenue demand in the same year was 9* 78 lakhs. Owing to the
backward state of Tirhut at the time of the Permanent Settlement,
the incidence of revenue is only R. 0-9-6 per cultivated acre.

A survey and preparation of a record-of-nghts for Muzaffarpur and
Champaran Districts, commenced m 1890-1 and successfully com-
pleted in 1899-1900, is important as being the first operation of the
kmd which was undertaken m Bengal for entire Districts which came
under the Permanent Settlement. The average size of a ryot’s holding
in Muzaffarpur was found to be 1*97 acres, and 82 per cent, of them
were held by occupancy and settled ryots. Such ryots almost always
pay rent in cash, but one-fifth of the non-occupancy ryots and three-
fifths of the under-ryots pay produce rents. These are of three kinds,
batai^ bhaolt^ and inankhaf\ in the first case the actual produce is

ADMINISTRA TION

, 105

divided, generally m equal proportions, between the tenant and^.^*^
landlord , in the second the crop is appraised in the field and the land-
lord’s share paid in cash or grain , while in the third the tenant agrees
to pay so many maunds of gram per blgha. The average rate of rent
per acre for all classes of ryots is Rs. 4-0-1 1. Ryots holding at fixed
rates pay Rs. 2-11-11 ; occupancy ryots, Rs. 3-12-3, non-occupancy
ryots, Rs 4-9-6 , and under-ryots, Rs. 4-5-8 per acre. The rent, how-
ever, varies not only with the character and situation of the land, but
also according to the caste and position of the cultivator, a tenant of
a high caste paying less than one of lower social rank. Rents are higher
in the south than in the north, where the demand for land has developed
at a comparatively recent date. The highest rents of all are paid in the
neighbourhood of Hajlpur, where poppy, tobacco, potatoes, &c., are grown
on land which is never fallow and often produces four crops a year
The following table shows the collections of land levenue and of
total revenue (principal heads only), in thousands of rupees —

1 880-1

1890-1

1900-1

1903-4

Land revenue

Total revenue

9.75

17.59

9.87

16,94

9.77

21,91

9.77

22,17

Outside the municipalities of Muzaffarpur, Hajipur, Lalganj,
and Sitamarhi, local affairs are managed by the District board, with
subordinate local boards in each subdivision. In 1903-4 its income
was Rs. 3,31,000, of which Rs 1,83,000 was derived from rates, and
the expenditure was Rs 3,60,000, the chief item being Rs. 2,69,000
expended on public works.

The most important public works are the Tirhut embankment on
the left bank of the Great Gandak, and the Turk! embankment on the
south bank of the Baghmati. The Gandak embankment, which runs
for 52 miles from the head of the Baya river to the confluence of the
Gandak and Ganges, and protects 1,250 square miles of country, is
maintained by contract. On the expiry of the first contract in 1903,
a new contract for its maintenance for a penod of twenty years at a
cost of 2-08 lakhs was sanctioned by Government. The Turk! em-
bankment, originally built in i8io by the Kantai Indigo Factory to
protect the lands of that concern, was acquired by Government about
1870 It extends from the Turk! weir for 26 miles along the south
bank of the Baghmati, and protects 90 square miles of the dodb between
that river and the Little Gandak. In 1903-4 Rs. 2,200 was spent on
its maintenance.

The District contains 22 police stations and 14 outposts. The force
subordinate to the District Supenntendent consists of 3 inspectors,
28 sub-inspectors, 47 head constables, and 432 constables; the rural

io6 MUZAFFARPUR DISTRICT

police force is composed of 238 daffadars and 4.735 ckaukiddrs. A
District jail at Muzaffarpur has accommodation for 465 prisoners, and
subsidiary jails at Hajlpur and Sitamarhi for 38.

The standard of literacy, though higher than elsewhere in North
Bihar, is considerably below the average for Bengal, only 3*9 per cent
of the population (7-8 males and o 3 females) being able to read and
write in 1901. The number of pupils under instruction, which was
24,000 in r88o-r, fell to 23,373 m 1S92-3, but increased to 29,759 m
1 900-1. In 1903-4, 35,084 boys and 1,843 were at school, being
respectively 17*7 and 0*85 per cent, of the children of school-going age.
The number of educational institutions, public and private, in that year
was 1,520, mcluding one Arts college, 20 secondary, 1,013 primary, and
486 special schools. The expenditure on education was 1*55 lakhs, of
which Rs. 11,000 was met from Provincial funds, Rs 53,000 from
District funds, Rs. 3,000 from municipal funds, and Rs. 57,000 from
fees The most important institutions are the Bhumhar Brahman
College and the Government District school at Muzaffarpur town.

In 1903 the District contained five dispensaries, of which three
had accommodation for 62 in-patients. The cases of 72,000 out-
patients and 800 in-patients were treated, and 4,000 operations were
performed. The expenditure was Rs. 13,000, of which Rs. 900
was met from Government contributions, Rs. 5,000 from Local and
Rs. 4,000 from municipal funds, and Rs. 3,000 from subscriptions.
Besides these, two private dispensaries are maintained, one at Baghi
in the head-quarters subdivision and the other at Parihar in the Sita-
marhi subdivision, by the Darbhanga Raj.

Vaccination is compulsory only in municipal areas. In 1903-4 the
number of persons successfully vaccmated was 87,000, representing 32
per 1,000 of the population, or rather less than the average for Bengal.

[L. S. S. O’Malley, District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1907) , C. J. Steven-
son-Moore, Sett/ement Report {C 3 lc\ittdi.y 1900)]

Muzaffarpur Subdivision. — Head-quarters subdivision of Mu-
zaffarpur District, Bengal, lying between 25® 54' and 26° 28' N. and
84° 53' and 85° 45' E, with an area of 1,221 square miles. It is
an alluvial tract, bounded on the west by the Great Gandak and inter-
sected by the Baghmati and Little Gandak, flowing in a south-easterly
direction. The population was 1,050,027 m 1901, compared with
i>o74j 3S2 in 1891, the density being 860 persons per square mile. The
slight declme in the population is due partly to the Muzaffarpur tMna
having suffered from cholera epidemics, and partly to the fact that it
supplies a large number of emigrant labourers to Lower Bengal. More-
over, the dodb between the Baghmati and the Little Gandak is liable to
frequent inundations. The subdivision contains one town, Muzaffar-
pur (population, 45,617), Its head-quarters j and 1,712 villages.

MUZAFFARPUI^ TOWN

107

Muzaffarpur Town. — Head-quarters of Muzaffarpur District,
Bengal, situated in 26° 7' N. and 85° 24' E., on the right bank of the
Little Gandak. The population, which was 38,241 in 1872, increased
to 42,460 in 1881 and to 49,192 in 1891, but fell in 1901 to 45,617,
of whom 31,629 were Hindus and 13,492 Muhammadans. The de-
crease of 9 per cent at the last Census is to a great extent only
apparent ; and, but for the exclusion of one of the old wards from the
municipal limits, and the temporary absence of a large number of
people in connexion with marriage ceremonies, the town would probably
have returned at least as many inhabitants as in i8gi. Roads radiate
from the town in all directions. A considerable trade is carried by the
Little Gandak, the channel of which, if slightly improved, would carry
boats of 20 tons burden all the year round. Muzaffarpur was consti-
tuted a municipality in 1864 The income during the decade ending
1901-2 averaged Rs 70,000, and the expenditure Rs. 62,000. In
1903-4 the income was Rs 83,000, including Rs. 30,000 derived
from a tax on houses and lands, Rs. 16,000 from a conservancy rate,
Rs. 3,000 from a tax on vehicles, and Rs. 13,000 from tolls. The
incidence of taxation was Rs. i~6-i per head of the population In
the same year the expenditure also amounted to Rs. 83,000, the chief
Items being Rs. 3,000 spent on lighting, Rs. 3,000 on drainage,
Rs 29,000 on conservancy, Rs 6,000 on medical relief, Rs. 11,000 on
roads, Rs. 17,000 on buildings, and Rs 1,400 on education. The
town IS clean, and the streets in many cases are broad and well kept
It contains, in addition to the usual public buildings, a large new
hospital, a dispensary, and several schools, some of the best of which
are supported by the Bihar Scientific Society and the Dharmasamaj.
In 1899 a college, teaching up to the B.A standard, was established in
Muzaffarpur through the generosity of a local zamlnddr. The building
IS large, and the college is in a flourishing condition. The Distnct jail
has accommodation for 465 prisoners, who are employed chiefly in the
manufacture of mustaid oil, castor oil, daris^ carpets, matting, aloe
fibie, coarse cloth, and dusters. Near the court buildings is a lake
formed from an old bed of the river. To prevent the river from reach-
ing it, an embankment has been thrown across the lake towards
Daudpur , but in spite of this the river has cut very deeply into the
high bank near the circuit-house, and, unless it changes its course, it
will probably in time break through the strip of land which at present
separates it from the lake Muzaffarpur is the head-quarters of the
Bihar Light Horse Volunteer Corps. At the time of the Mutiny of
1857 a small number of native troops who were stationed here rose,
plundered the Collector’s house, and attacked the treasury and jail, but
were driven off by the police and najlhs and decamped towards Allganj
Sewan in Saran District without causing any further disturbance.

VOL. XVIII. H

io8 MYAING

Myaing. — Eastern township of Pakokku District, Upper Burma,
lying between 21° 24' and 21° 51' N. and 94° 33' and 95° 2' E , with
an area of 825 square miles. The township is undulating in contour,
rising gradually towaids the Tangyi range of hills that bounds it on the
west, and has a very meagre rainfall. The population was 47,111 m
1891, and 71,976 in 190T, distributed in 295 villages. Myaing (popu-
lation, 610), a village 25 miles north-west of Pakokku, is the head-
quarters The area cultivated in 1903-4 was 215 square miles, and
the land revenue and thathameda amounted to Rs. 1,53,000,

Myanaung Subdivision. — Northern portion of Henzada District,
Lower Burma, occupying about one-third of the whole, and comprising
the Kanaxjng and Kyangin townships

Myanaung Town. — Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same
name in the Kanaung township of Henzada District, Lower Burma,
situated m 18° 17' N. and 95° 22' E, on the western bank of the
Irrawaddy, about 8 miles south-east of Kyangin and half-way between
It and Kanaung Population (1901), 6,351. Myanaung is said to have
been founded by the Takings about 1250, and was then called Kudut.
Alaungpaya captuied and renamed it in 1754. It was formerly the
head-quarters of the District, which was then called Myanaung. It
was constituted a municipality m 1886. During the ten years ending
1901 the municipal income and expenditure averaged Rs. 18,300 and
Rs. 18,500 respectively, In 1903-4 the income was Rs, 19,000,
including house tax (Rs. 3,000), market dues, &c. (Rs. 12,700); and
the expenditure was Rs. 18,000, the chief items being conservancy
(Rs 4,600), hospital (Rs. 3,000), and roads (Rs 2,600). The munici-
pality supports a hospital and an Anglo-vernacular school, and con-
tributed Rs 3,000 to education in 1903-4. The Henzada-Kyangm
railway, when constructed, will pass through Myanaung

Myaimg. — Western township of Sagaing District, Upper Burma,
lying in the angle formed by the junction of the Irrawaddy and Chin-
dwin rivers, between 21° 35' and 21° 52' N. and 95° 12' and 95° 26' E.,
with an area of 246 square miles. The population was 25,270 in 1891,
and 31,497 in 1901, distributed in 79 villages. The head-quarters till
recently were at Kyaukyit, on the Nabet stream, a waterway connecting
the Irrawaddy and Chindwm, but have now been moved eastwards to
Myaung (population, 1,016), on the right bank of the Irrawaddy, about
40 miles west of Sagaing town. The area cultivated m 1903-4 was 96
square miles, and the land revenue and thathameda amounted to
Rs. 1,14,200.

Myaungmya District. — A delta District in the Irrawaddy Division
of Lower Burma, lying between 15° 44' and 16° 55' N. and 94° 36' and
95° 35^ E , with an area of 2,663 square miles. In shape a rough
parallelogram, the District is bounded on the south by the sea ; on the

MYAUNGMYA DISTRICT

109

west by Bassein District ^ on the east by Pyapon ^ and on the north by
Ma-ubin. It is practically a collection of flat, fertile islands, sundered
the one from the other by nvers which wmd through
the levels m a south-westerly direction, and are con-
nected by countless tidal creeks, mostly navigable.

With the exception of a small tract of rising ground 30 miles south-
west of Myaungmya town, an offshoot of the Arakan Yoma, the surface
of the country is very little above the rise of spring-tides. Towards
the south, near the coast, the principal features of the scenery are
interminable stretches of mangrove jungle and dani palm, which border
the mud-banks of the creeks Farther north, plantain groves take the
place of the tidal forests, and, with the pagodas, help to break the
monotonous character of the landscape, which otherwise would show
little moie than a waste of wide nee flats, chequered with strips of
grass and tree jungle. Its waterways are the mam natural features
of Myaungmya. These are all branches of the Irrawaddy, though that
name is given only to the channel which runs down the eastern edge
of the District, forming the greater portion of the border between it
and the District of Pyapon. The Panmawadi, composed of various
streams which leave the Irrawaddy in Henzada Distnet, skirts Myaung-
mya for a considerable distance on its western side before striking off
westwards into Bassein, one of its branches, the Thetkethaung, bound-
ing It down to the sea-coast. Right down the centre of the District
flows the Pyamalaw river, parallel to the Irrawaddy and Panmawadi,
and enters the sea in two branches, named the Pyamalaw and Pymzalu,
midway between them. The Shwelaung river takes off from the Irra-
waddy at the north-east corner of the District, and, after forming the
northern boundary, turns south at the town of Shwelaung, and flows
midway between the Irrawaddy and the Pyamalaw for about 25 miles.
Here, combinmg with a branch of the Irrawaddy, it becomes the
Kyunpyatthat river, which, leaning first towards the Pyamalaw river,
eventually joins the Irrawaddy about 24 miles from the sea. The Irra-
waddy, after forming the eastern boundary of the District for 24 miles,
divides into two streams, never more than 5 miles apart, which unite
again about 30 miles farther south. The eastern branch retains the
name of the Irrawaddy, while the western is known as the Yazudaing.
The lesser nvers are the Wakema, 23 miles in length, connecting the
Shwelaung and Pyamalaw, and flowing past the rising town of Wakema,
and the Einme and Myaungmya, which foim a loop from the Panma-
wadi river nearly 60 miles in length.

The soil is composed of alluvial formation, resting on a substratum
of black clay. South-west of Myaungmya is a hilly tract, composed
of rocks of the Nummulitic group ; but beyond this small stretch of
upland the country to some depth below the surface is largely a suc-

H 2

JIO

MYAUNGMYA DISTRICT

cession of layers of river silt, brought down from the north within what
IS geologically a comparatively recent date

The flora is of the type common to all the delta tiacts, which is
briefly described under Hanthawaddv District Tidal and swamp
vegetation predominates.

Elephants and tigers are found in the southern and more unreclaimed
parts, but the spread of cultivation is reducing their range. Leopards
(including the black variety) are found in all parts, and are occasionally
trapped, and sdmbar and barking-deer are faiily plentiful in the
Myaungmya township. Monkeys abound in the southern forests, while
m the smaller creeks are numeious crocodiles, driven to these more
secluded retreats by the traffic m the laiger sti earns Along the sea-
coast both the turtle and the tortoise are common.

On the whole, the climate, though eneivating, is not unhealthy.
Proximity to the sea renders it more equable than that of the Districts
farther inland. The average minimum temperature is about 65°, and
the maximum 95°, the average mean being about 80°. The temperature
never rises above 105°. The rainfall is copious and legular, varying
locally with the proximity to the coast The northern townships receive
from 70 to 90 inches a year, the southern townships from 90 to 130
inches. Owing to the nature of the surface of the country, certain
tiacts are regularly inundated during the rams.

The cyclone of May, 1902, unioofed a third of the dwellings m the
District, sank many boats with considerable loss of life, and destroyed
much stored gram , but visitations of this nature are rare
The name Myaungmya is said to mean ‘pleasant canal,’ but this is
only the most plausible of various alleged derivations. The District
History made no permanent maik m history, and, save in

the fourteenth century, the old annals contain no
reference to it of importance. In 1387 one Lauk Bya, governor of
Myaungmya, is said by the Talaing chroniclers to have raised the
standard of revolt against Razadirit, king of Pegu, and to have called
in the aid of the king of Ava. The Burmese troops were, however,
defeated at Hmawbi, the rebellion was quashed, and Lauk Bya was
eventually captured and beheaded. Myaungmya is referred to in the
history of the events that followed on this revolt, and in 1410 a
Burmese army is said to have made an unsuccessful attack upon the
town. But no mention of it is made in later chronicles, and in neither
the first nor the second Burmese War did it play an important part.
The District is of modern creation, having been formed in 1893 by the
combination of the western townships of Thongwa (now Ma-ubin)
District with the eastern townships of Bassein District. On the con-
stitution of Pyapon District in 1903, the Pantanaw township of the
Wakema (or eastern) subdivision was restored to Ma-ubin District, and

POPULATION-

III

a large circle of the Pymdaye township of the old Thongwa District
was added to Myaungmya, the Wakema township being made into a
subdivision and divided into two townships, with head-quarters at
AVakema and Moulmeingyun

Owing to the frequent changes in the boundaries of the District,

It is not possible to give accurate statistics of the population m

earlier years In 1881 there were about 85,000 ^ , .

1 Population,

persons in the area now constituting Myaungmya,

a total which had risen by 1891 to 185,930. After that date the

increase in population was very rapid, owing to immigration, and in

1901 the total stood at 278,119

The distribution of the population m 1901 over the existing area
IS given in the following table: —

Township

Area in square
miles

Number of

Population.

Population per
square mile.

Percentage of
variation in
population be-
tween i8gi
and 1901

Number of
persons able to
read and
write

Tow'ns

Villages

Myaungmya .
Einrue

AVakema .
Moulmeingyun .

District total

1,069

315

718

b 6 i

227

122

194

129

75.343

59.367

75.478

67.931

188

105

120

+ 49
+ 45

j +58*

19,211

13,544

39,200

3,663

672

278,119

104

+ 49

71,955

* The Moulmeing^yun township was only constituted in 1903

Myaungmya and AVakema are the only towns. The rate of increase
IS extraordinary m the AVakema township, and throughout the whole
District is large. The immigrants come chiefly from the neighbouring
District of Bassein, from the dry zone districts on the Iriawaddy, and
to a small extent from Mandalay, Shwebo, and Lower Chindwm in
Upper Burma. Burmese is spoken by about 190,000 persons, and
Karen by about 77,000,

Of the total population, Burmans number about 180,000, and Karens
about 78,000. The latter are most thickly distributed in the older
cultivation in the north, and still preserve their language. The immi-
grants from Upper Burma go farther south to make new clearings.
About 2,000 persons returned themselves as Talaings in 1901, but
only a third of them spoke Taking. The Indian population is small,
numbering 3,400 Musalmans and 2,000 Hindus. The Christian com-
munity, on the other hand, is large, numbering about 12,800, being
the largest aggregate m the Province after Rangoon, Bassein, and
Toungoo. Two-thirds of the population are directly dependent upon
agnculture for a living, and about 3^700 live by tamigya (shifting)
cultivation in the small hilly area of the District.

II2

MYAUNGMYA DISTRICT

There are 12,500 native Christians, mostly Karens. More than
9,000 of these belong to the American Baptist Mission, which has
stations in the large Karen villages and many village churches. The
head-quarters of the Roman Catholic missions are at Myaungmya,
Kanazogon, and Kyontalok, wheie there are substantial churches.

In all paits except the Myaungmya township the natural conditions
— iichness of soil, flatness of suiface, and timeliness and sufficiency
of rainfall — are extiemely favourable to agriculture
Agriculture, alluvial loam on a substratum of clay,

formed by the deposit of silt fiom the Irrawaddy floods, which inun-
date a considerable proportion of the District. The only variation
in the contour of the land is the gradual slope away from the banks
to the interior of the island of cultivation In consequence of these
favourable conditions, practically nothing but iice (kaukkyi or wet-
season) is giown, though a certain number of plantain groves exist
The system of cultivation is the same as in other parts of Burma,
the rice being transplanted fiom nurseries after the ground has been
prepared with the harrow (tundon) The plough is often not used
at all, the seed being scattered broadcast after the grass has been
cut. The gardens usually lie in long narrow strips along the banks
of the streams. Manuring is said to be unknown and unattempted,
and even the burning of the surface straw is rare.

The chief agricultural statistics for 1903-4 are shown below, areas
being in square miles : —

To\\nship

Total area

Cultivated

Forests

Myaungmya

1,069

205

Emme

.315

170

■ 1,480

Wakema .

718

1,61

Moulmemgyun .

273

Total

2,663

799

1,480

Accurate statistics of the area under cultivation in earlier years
cannot be given, owing to the numerous changes in the District
boundaries, but in general terms it may be said that about 312
square miles were cultivated in 1881, 437 in 1891, and 71 1 in 1901
Rice occupied 764 square miles m 1903-4 The area under garden
cultivation was 20 square miles, evenly distributed over the various
townships, with the exception of Moulmeingyun, where the gardens
are confined to the Kyaikpi circle on the eastern bank of the Irrawaddy.
Of the total area under orchards, 5,000 acres were devoted to plan-
tain groves. The da?it palm, used largely for thatching purposes,
is most popular in the Myaungmya township, and is grown on 4,100
acres. Almost the only other ciop worthy of mention is sugar-cane,

AGRICULTURE

113

which covers about 550 acres m the Myaungmya and Wakema town-
ships. Sesamum is, however, also cropped to a small extent, and
coco-nut palms are fairly plentiful. There are no particular forms of
tenure.

Large quantities of cultivable land are taken up each year by the
agriculturists of the District and the many immigiants. In 1903 about
39 square miles were ploughed for the fiist time. The extension
cannot be continued for long, as the reservation of forests, grazing
grounds, and fishery tracts has had the effect of reducing the available
waste land considerably during the past few years There is nothing
to record in the way of improvements in agricultural practice. The
provisions of the Land Improvement and Agriculturists’ Loans Acts
have been made but little use of m recent years, as the large exten-
sions of cultivation have been carried out by capitalists to whom the
small sums obtainable under these Acts are no inducement.

Both buffaloes and kme are bred and employed in the fields.
Buffaloes are used by Karens and Bui mans mostly in the more low-
lying tracts, where they thrive better than cattle, and have harder
work to do. Ponies are few and can be used only in the north. In
the network of creeks which intersects the southern area their employ-
ment IS out of the question. Except in the Wakema township grazing
reserves are ample. In Wakema cultivation has expanded so rapidly
during the last decade that the existing reserves are inadequate, but
steps are being taken to remedy this defect During the rams the
cattle have to be protected from countless swarms of mosquitoes by
the smoke of fires, or even by means of cloth coverings that answer
the purpose of a mosquito curtain.

There are no regular irrigation works, and no part of the larger
embankment schemes of the delta falls within the limits of the Dis-
trict ; but the Shwelaung marginal road (12 miles long) in the extreme
north of the Wakema township shelters about 6,000 acres of land.
Next to the cultivation of rice, fishing is the chief occupation of the
inhabitants. It was even more important in the days when the Panta-
naw township formed a portion of the District. The inland fisheries
occupy a large portion of the eastern part of the Emme township,
and the revenue derived from them in 1903-4 amounted to 1*3 lakhs.
A full and interesting description of these fisheries and the methods
of working them is contained in a report by Major Maxwell pub-
lished in 1904. Turtle-banks exist along the coast of the District,
of which the two most important are known as the Amatgale and
Pyinsalu banks.

The forests are of no great value. Teak is of comparatively rare
occurrence, and the mixed forests in which it is found are ‘ unclassed.’
There is a small area of tropical forest in the hilly tract about 40 miles

114

MYAUNGMYA DISTRICT

south-west of Myaungmya. Littoral forests are common in the southern
portions, a considerable proportion of the low-lying area round the
coast being covered with mangrove jungle, for the most part ‘ reserved.’
The swamp forests lying to the north of these tidal forests form the
main rattan-producing tracts of the District. The area of ‘reserved’
forests is 480 square miles, and of the ‘unclassed’ area 1,000 square
miles The forest receipts in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 28,000.

The mineral resources are comparatively meagre. Pottery clay is
found m parts of the Einme township, wheie the poorer classes have •
taken to pot-making , and laterite is worked for road-metallmg in the
Myaungmya township, where also limestone is obtamed in the hilly
areas. The quarries are worked only in the dry season, and the blocks
of limestone when extracted are transported by cart or boat some
distance to the kilns.

With the exception of pottery, which is really only a domestic occu-
pation, there are practically no arts save those that are entirely subsidiaiy
to agnculture. Of industries, the manufacture of salt
comm^l^^fons ngapi may be mentioned. The head-quarters
' of the salt industry are at the two villages of Sagyin
and Ganeik in the south-west of the Myaungmya township, a dozen
miles from the sea on the Panmawadi river. Salt is obtained by
evaporation, but the product is coarse and is used almost entirely in
the local ngapi industry. The annual output is about 50,000 maunds,
obtained from 14 factones containing 48 cauldrons of a capacity of
40 gallons each. Ngapi is fish-paste into which all the large surplus
of fish caught in the District is transformed before being sent into
the interior of Burma. Many vaiieties are produced; but the ?igapi
chiefly made here is the damin or sea ngapi^ the head-quarters of
the industry being at Labutta, on the right bank of the Ywe river,
20 miles from the coast.

The principal exports are paddy and ngapi. The former is carried by
boat or steamer to either Rangoon or Bassem, according as the one
or the other port is the more accessible. Ngapi, on the other hand,
is sent to all parts of Burma The imports comprise every article
required by a primitive agricultural or fishing community, such as
piece-goods, hardware, kerosene oil, &c. , these commodities are
brought by river from Rangoon for the most part. The Irrawaddy
Rlotilla Company enjoys the larger share of this trade, but native boats
also play a conspicuous part in the carrying business.

No railways have been constructed ; but the connexion of Myaung-
mya, Thlgwin, Emme, and Pantanaw (in Ma-ubin District) by means
of a light railway is under consideration. The only roads are purely
local. Water communications are so plentiful, however, that these
deficiencies have so far not been felt ; in fact, no village of any size

ADMimsmA TION

is situated far from a navigable waterway. The main steamei route
from Eangoon to Bassein traverses the District by the cross-streams
connecting the Irrawaddy, Pyamalaw, Ywe, and Panmawadi rivers.
The steamers stop at Myaungmya, Wakema, and Shwelaung within
the limits of the District. In addition, the mam trade centres —
Shwelaung, Wakema, Kyunpyatthat, Moulmeingyun, Einme, Thlgwin,
Myaungmya, and Labutta — are kept m regular communication with
each other, and with the towns of the neighbouring Districts of Bassein
and Ma-ubin, by services of smallei steamers and launches.

The District is divided for administrative purposes into two sub-
divisions Myaungmya, comprising the Myaungmya and Einme town-
ships , and Wakema, comprising the Wakema and
Moulmeingyun townships These administrative
areas are in charge of the usual executive officeis, under whom are
7 iaik (or circle) thigyts and 673 ywafhugyts or village headmen.
The former are being gradually abolished, their revenue duties being
taken over by the village headmen m accordance with the policy
pursued by the Government of late years. The Executive Engineer
at Myaungmya is m charge of a division comprising Myaungmya,
Ma-ubin, and Pyapon Districts. The District, together with Bassein,
forms a Forest division, with head-quarters at Bassein.

For some considerable time the executive officers of the District
have been almost completely relieved of civil judicial work, and the
new judicial scheme is now m force, Myaungmya being the head-
quarters of the Divisional and Sessions Judge of the Delta Division.
A District Judge has been appointed, and the Deputy-Commissioner
has no duties in connexion with civil justice. A subdivisional judge
has been appointed for the two subdivisions of the District, and there
is a special civil judge for the Myaungmya and Einme townships, while
a judge, sitting at Wakema and Moulmeingyun, does the civil work for
the two townships of the Wakema subdivision. Crime is of the type
common to all the delta Districts of the Province. It has increased of
recent years, but not out of proportion to the growth in population

Under the Burmese regime the revenue system was the same as that
obtaining in the other Districts of Lower Burma. A tax was assessed
at so much per yoke of oxen or buffaloes, and another impost corre-
sponded more or less to the income tax of modern days. In 1862 acre
rates were fixed in the northern portion of the Myaungmya township,
and remained in force till 1 880-1. They varied from R i to Rs. 2 per
acre, the former rate being levied on the exhausted land in the Myaung-
mya circle. The settlement of the Wakema township was carried out
about the same time, and was revised ten years later. The revenue
steadily increased, and in 1879-80 the rates were raised by about
25 per cent, in the Myaungmya township, and by 6 to 25 per cent, in

Ii6

MYAUNGMYA DISTRICT

the townships of Wakema and Pantanaw (the latter now m Ma-ubin
District). This increase did not check the extension of cultivation,
which shows that the higher rates did not press heavily on the people.
The northern portions of the Myaungmya and Wakema townships were
again brought under settlement in 1888-9, when they were divided into
nine assessment tracts (with two soil classes) ; and the rates then in
existence were leplaced by rates on nee land varying from R. i to
Rs. 2-ro per acre, on gardens at Rs 2-8, and on miscellaneous
crops at Rs. 2 per acre. The Einme township (till 1893 part of Bassein
District) was assessed in 1854 at rates varying from Rs. i~8 to
Rs. 1-12 per acre. These were modified in 1862, the maximum
rate being raised to Rs. 2-8 in a resettlement m 1881-2. The rates
fixed in 1881-2 remained in force till 1897-8 in this area. The culti-
vated lands in the south of the Myaungmya township were settled
m 1862, and were not resettled till 190 1-2. At the time of resettle-
ment rates in force varied from R. i (on the lands nearest the sea)
to Rs. 2-xo per acre On resettlement they were modified as
follows On rice lands the rate ranged from R. i (in the extreme
south-west corner) to Rs 3-4 an acre , on miscellaneous cultivation
the rate was Rs. 1-8 throughout the tract ; on gardens, Rs. 2 , on
dam palms, Rs. 4 ; on solitary fruit trees, 4 annas each. The northern
part of the Myaungmya township and the Einme township were agam
settled in 1897-8. The lands were reclassified, the village charge
being substituted for the kwin as the settlement unit, and rates varying
from Rs. 1-4 upwards were sanctioned. The maximum rate for
garden land in this portion of the District is Rs. 5 per acre on betel-
vme and dani plantations, and Rs. 2-8 on other garden and mis-
cellaneous cultivation The settlement of the southern part of the
Wakema subdivision was completed in 1902-3, the highest rate sanc-
tioned being Rs. 5 per acre for rice, Rs. 10 for betel-vine, and Rs. 5 for
dam. The northern part was taken in hand in 1903-4. An ordinary
rice holding in the Myaungmya township ranges from 10 to 15 acres in
extent, and in the rest of the District from 20 to 25 acres. Owing to
the recent formation of the District and the frequent modifications of
its boundaries, comparative revenue statistics cannot be given. The
land revenue in 1903-4 amounted to 11*7 lakhs, and the capitation tax
to 2*5 lakhs; the total revenue was 20 lakhs.

The District cess fund, derived mainly from a 10 per cent, cess on
the land revenue, and utilized for various local needs, had an income
in 1903-4 of r*6 lakhs, and the chief items of expenditure were public
works (Rs, 48,000) and education (Rs 18,000). The only municipality
in the District is Myaungmya, but Wakema is managed by a town
committee.

The civil police force is under the orders of the District Superin-

MYAUNGMYA TOWNSHIP

117

tendent, aided by one Assistant Superintendent and 4 inspectors. The
lower grades are made up of 8 head constables, 36 sergeants, and
206 constables, distributed in 12 police stations and 3 outposts The
military police force consists of 3 native officers, 8 havt/dars, and
162 men, stationed at Myaungmya, at the various township head-
quarteis, and at ThTgwin, Shwelaung, Kyumpyatthat, and Kyaikpi.

The jail at Myaungmya has an enclosure capable of providing for
1,000 prisoners, but the actual accommodation in buildings is for 500,
which IS ample at present. The only occupations carried on by the
prisoners are the manufacture of jail clothing for supply to other jails,
and gardening.

The Standard of education is fairly high. The percentage of males
recorded as literate in 1901 was 42 8, and that of females 7*2, or 25-9
for both sexes together. In 1904 the District contained 7 secondary,
155 primary, and 256 private (elementary) schools, with 6,734 male and
1,366 female pupils The total includes a considerable number of
Karen seminaries. Myaungmya town possesses an Anglo-vernacular
middle school, with an attendance of about 100, which is maintained
by the municipality. The public expenditure on education m 1903-4
amounted to Rs. 26,600, of which the District cess fund provided
Rs 18,000, Provincial funds Rs. 4,300, municipal funds Rs. 1,500,
and fees Rs 2,800.

The District contains two hospitals, with forty-nine beds. In 1903
the number of cases treated was 17,750, including 685 in-patients, and
419 operations were performed. The total expenditure was Rs 8,000,
of which municipal funds contributed Rs 4,900 and Local funds
Rs. 2,800.

In 1903-4 the number of persons successfully vaccinated was 12,642,
representing 42 per 1,000 of population. Vaccination is compulsory
only in Myaungmya and Wakema towns.

[W, E. Lowry, Settlement Report (1899); J. Mackenna, Settlement
Report (1903); Major F. D. Maxwell, Report on Inland and Sea
Fisheries (1904).]

Myaungmya Subdivision. — Western subdivision of Myaungmya
District, Lower Burma, comprising the Myaungmya and Einme
townships.

Myaungmya Township. — Township of Myaungmya District,
Lower Burma, lying between 15° 47' and 16° 43' N. and 94° 36' and
95° 13' E., with an area of 1,069 square miles It is compnsed between
the Pyamalaw and Panmawadi rivers on the east and west, and extends
from the Myaungmya river to the sea. It is for the most part flat,
and would be a typical delta area were it not for a small tract of com-
paratively hilly country which rises to the south-west of the township
head-quarters, forming the only high land m the District. The great

ii8 MYAUNGMYA TOWNSHIP

majority of the population occupy the north-east, and large stretches
of jungle cover the southern portions. The population Avas 53,224
in 1891, and 75,343 m 1901, distributed in 227 villages and one town,
Myaungmya (population, 4,711), the head-quaiters About one-third
of the total are Karens. In 1903-4 the area under cultivation was
205 square miles, paying Rs. 3,15,000 land revenue, and the total
revenue amounted to Rs. 5,68,000.

Myaungmya Town. — Head-quaiLers of the District and township
of the same name in the Irrawaddy Division of Lower Burma, situated
m 16° 35' N and 95° E , on the Myaungmya river, close to the western
border of the District. Myaungmya is a District of recent creation,
and Its head-quarters is one of the smallest in the Province. The
population in 1901 was 4,711. Portions of the urban area are low-
lying, but the civil station is not unpleasantly situated on faiily high
ground behind the native houses which cluster round the river bank
Theie is little of note in the history of the town beyond what is
embodied in the District article. It was the scene of the first rising
among the Karens in 1853, and became the District head-quarters
forty years later It contains no pagodas or other remams of more
than local importance The municipality of Myaungmya was estab-
lished in 1886. The municipal income duiing the ten years ending
T901 averaged Rs. 18,000. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 26,000,
principally denved from tolls on markets (Rs. 17,500) and house tax
(Rs. 2,000). The expenditure amounted to Rs 36,000, the chief
Items of outlay being conservancy (Rs 5,000) and hospitals (Rs 5,800)
The only large municipal scheme worthy of mention is the construction
of a market recently undertaken at a cost of Rs 44,000. There are
no industries of importance in the town. The municipal school is
the most important in the District, with an attendance of about
100 scholars. The municipal hospital has thirty beds

Myebon. — Coast township of Kyaukpyu District, Low^er Burma^
lying between 19° 38' and 20° 16' N and 93° 13' and 93° 51' E., with
an area of 441 square miles. The head-quarters are at the village
of Myebon (population, 1,120), on an island at the northern end of
Hunter’s Bay, in the extreme north-west corner of the District. The
township is hilly and intersected by tidal creeks. The population was
20,880 in 1891 and 24,100 in 1901. The numbei of villages is 146.
The majority of the population are Buddhists, but there is a sprinkling
of «(2/-worshipping Chins in its hill areas. The population is scattered
and the density (54 persons per square mile) is low. About 58 square
miles were cultivated in 1903-4, paying Rs. 61,000 land revenue.

Myede. — South-eastern subdivision of Thayetmyo District, Burma,
conterminous with the Allanmyo township, and lying to the east of the
Irrawaddy, between 18° 55' and 19° 30' N. and 95° 9' and 95® 52' E.

MYINGYAN DISTRICT

119

It has an area of 912 square miles, and the population was 76,563 in
1891 and 66,672 in 1901 The township contains one town, Allanmyo
(population, 10,207), the head-quarters, and 322 villages. The rainfall
IS precarious, and the large decrease in inhabitants since 1891 is due
to emigration to the iich delta Districts of the Irrawaddy Division.
About one-eighth of the population are Chins, inhabiting the slopes
of the Pegu Yoma, which separates the township on the east from
Toungoo District. The township, which is intersected by low hills,
contained 85 square miles under cultivation in 1903-4, paying
Rs. 63,000 land revenue

Myelat Division (Southern Shan States) — A group of Shan States,
Burma, bordering on the Meiktila Division of Upper Burma, and
consisting of the States of Hsamonghkam, Kyawkku, Kyong, Loi-ai,
Loimaw, Maw, Mawnang, Mawson, Namhkai, Namtok, Pangmi,
Pangtara, Poila, Yengan, and Loilong. They are in charge of an
Assistant Superintendent stationed at Hsamonghkam (Thamakan), a
\illage near the Thazi-Taunggyi road. The Assistant Superintendent
also supervises the administration of the Shan State of Yawnghwe.

Myher. — State in the Baghelkhand Agency, Central India. See
Maihar

Myingun. — South-western township of Magwe District, Upper
Burma, lying along the Irrawaddy, between 19° 43' and 20° 8' N and
95° i' and 95° 28' E., with an area of 447 square miles. The soil
consists mainly of tndaing, a diy sandy earth on which sesamum and
millets are the only crops. The population was 24,354 in 1891, and
26,029 in 1901, distnbuted in loi villages, Myingun (population, 1,342),
on the Irrawaddy south of Magwe, being the head-quarters. The
area cultivated in 1903-4 was 10 1 square miles, and the land le venue
and thathameda amounted to Rs. 69,000.

Myingyan District. — A dry zone District in the Meiktila Division
of Upper Burma, lying between 20° 32' and 21° 46' N. and 94° 43'
and 96° i' E., with an area of 3,137 square miles. On the west it
is bounded by the Irrawaddy river, on the north by Sagaing District,
on the east by Kyaukse and Meiktila, and on the south by Magwe
District. It IS an irregularly shaped stretch of and
country, about twice as long as it is broad, stretching aspects^
south-west and north-east along the eastern bank
of the Irrawaddy. Most of it is dry undulating plain-land, diversified
by isolated hill masses. The more northerly of these clumps of
upland are comparatively insignificant. Popa Hill, however, near
the south-east comer, is a conspicuous eminence, forming the most
noticeable feature of the District. It is more or less conical m shape ;
its ongin is volcanic, and it has two peaks of almost equal height nearly
5,000 feet above sea-level. While the summit is bare, the lower slopes

120

MYINGYAN DISTRICT

are covered with gardens, where fruit trees flourish, for owing to its
position in the centre of the plains, Popa attracts and catches a liberal
rainfall On the south and east of the mam central cone are many
spurs extending to the Pin valley and Meiktila North of the peak
rough and hilly ground extends to the Taungtha hills, which rise from
the plain a few miles south of Myingyan town, and attain a height
of nearly 2,000 feet Other stretches of upland deserving of mention
are the Taywindaing ridge traversing the Pagan subdivision in the
south-west, and the Yondo, the Sekkyadaung, and the Mingun hills
in the Myingyan and Natogyi townships, in the extreme north of the
District on the borders of Sagaing.

The only river of importance is the Irrawaddy, which skirts the
western border. Entering the District near Sameikkon in the north,
it runs m a south-westerly direction for a few miles, then south till it
reaches Myingyan town, where it makes a curve to the west, forming,
just off Myingyan, a large island called Smde, which, in the dry season,
interposes several miles of sandbank between the steamer channel and
the town. After passing this bend, the river again takes a south-
westerly course till it reaches Nyaungu (Pagan) Here the channel
turns south for a while, then again south-west to Sale, and finally south-
east till the southern border of the District is reached. In the channel
are numerous fertile islands, on which tobacco, beans, rice, chillies,
and miscellaneous crops are grown. Parts of these islands are washed
away every year, and fresh islands spring up in their place, a source
of endless disputes among the neighbouring tkugyis Besides the
Irrawaddy, the only perennial streams are the Popa chaung in the
south and the Hngetpyawaing chaung in the north Only the first
of these, however, has an appreciable economic value The principal
intermittent watercourses are the Sindewa, the Pyaungbya, and the
Sunlun streams For the greater part of the year the beds of these
are dry sandy channels, but after a heavy fall of ram they are converted
into raging torrents

The rocks exposed belong entirely to the Tertiary system, and
consist for the most part of soft sandstones of pliocene age thrown
into long flat undulations or anticlines by lateral pressure. In some
instances denudation has removed the pliocene strata from the crests
of the more compressed folds, and exposed the miocene clays and
sandstones beneath. These low ndges are separated by broad tracts
covered with alluvium. The clay vanes in consistency, but is generally
light and always friable on the surface, however hard it may be below.
The sandstone is of light yellow colour. It forms thick beds, which
frequently contain nodular or kidney-shaped concretions of extremely
hard siliceous sandstone. The concretions, which are sometimes of
considerable size, are arranged m strings parallel to the bedding, and

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

121

project out of the surrounding softer materials, forming a very con-
spicuous feature in the landscape. In parts of the District, chiefly
in the south, silicified trunks of trees are found, some of great length.
Distinct from the rocks found in the plains is the volcanic Popa
region. Dr. Blanford, in 1862, reported that he found six different
beds represented on the hill and m its environs, which were as
follows : lava of variable thickness capping the whole ; soft sands
and sandy clays, yellow, greenish, and micaceous , a white sandy bed,
abounding in fragments of pumice, volcanic ash, containing quartz
and pebbles; ferruginous gravel and sandy clay, containing quartz
and pebbles and numerous concretions of peroxide of iron ; coarse
sand, mostly yellowish, with white specks.

The cutch-tree is found throughout the District, but it is fast dis-
appearmg. Not only is it cut and its very roots dug out of the ground
to be boiled down for cutch, but the young trees are much exploited
for harrow teeth The t/itfya (Skorea obiusa\ tanaung {Acacia leuco-
phloea), letpan {Bomb ax malabancum)^ nyaung {Ficus) ^ and tamarind
{Tamanndus indica) are the commonest trees. Toddy-palms {Borassus
flabelhfer) are very plentiful, and form an appreciable part of the wealth
of the people. Bamboos are found on the low hills on the Meiktila
border and on Popa. The jack-tree {Artocarpus integrtfoha) is common
about Popa, and the zibyu {Ctcea macrocarpa) and the zi {Ztzyphus
Jujuba) produce fruit which is exported by the ton to Lower Burma,
besides being consumed in the District itself. On Popa a little teak
and a number of ihtiya and ingytn {Pentacme siamensis) trees are found.

Barely fifty years have elapsed since elephants, sdmbar, and tigers
roamed the forests in the neighbourhood of Popa Since the occupa-
tion of Upper Burma, however, no elephants have visited the District,
and the sdmbar and tiger have disappeared, though there are still
numerous leopards, and on Popa a few specimens of the serow
{Nemorhaedus sumatrensts) have been seen and shot. The thamin
(brow-antlered deer) is scarce, but hog and barking deer are common,
the former m the heavier jungle, the latter everywhere. Wild dogs,
which hunt in packs, are found m the Natogyi and Kyaukpadaung
townships.

The climate of the District is dry and healthy, the atmosphere being
practically free from moisture for the greater part of the year. In
March and April, and often for several days together throughout the
rains, a strong, high, dry, south-west wind sweeps the District, a trial to
human bemgs and a curse to the crops. Popa, thanks to its elevation,
has a pleasantly cool climate durmg the hot season, but has never been
systematically made use of as a sanitarium. The maximum tempera-
ture in the Irrawaddy valley varied in 1901 from 105° in May to 85*^
m December, and the mmimum from 75® in May to 56° in December,

122

MYINGYAN DISTRICT

In July, a typical lains month, the mean was about 8o° in the same
year.

Owing to Its position in the diy zone, the District suffers from
a fickle and scanty lainfalL An excessively heavy downpour is often
followed by a lengthy spell of dry scoiching heat , and it may be said
that not much oftener than twice in the year on an average does the
sky become black, and true monsoon conditions pievail At other
times the rainfall is confined to small showers and thunderstorms.
It is, moreover, not only meagre, but capricious in its course, and
leaves tracts here and there altogether unvisited. The rainfall in 1901,
which was on the whole normal, varied from 2 2-| inches at Pagan
and Sale to 30 inches in the more hilly townships of Taungtha and
Kyaukpadaung.

The early history of the Distnct is bound up with that of the famous
Pagan dynasty, the beginnings of which are wrapped in a mist of
nebulous tradition According to legend, the king-
dom of Pagan was founded early in the second
centuiy by Thamudarit, the nephew of a king of Prome, when that
town was destroyed by the Talaings. This monarch is said to have
established his capital at Pugama near Nyaungu, and to have been
followed by kings who reigned at Pugama, Thiripyitsaya, Tampawadi,
and Paukkarama (or Pagan) for nearly 1,200 years One of the most
famous of these early rulers was Thinga Yaza, who threw off the yellow
robe of the pongyi and seized the throne, and is credited wnth having
left a mark m history by his establishment of the Burmese era, starting
in A.D. 638. The whole history of this early period, however, is unre-
liable. Pagan itself is said to have been founded m 847 by a later
king, Pyinbya ; and here we have evidence from other sources, which
more or less corroborates the date given. The Prome chronicles
record a second destruction of Prome by the Takings in 742, which
led to the migration of the reigning house northwards to Pagan.
Prome was in all probability raided several times in these early days,
and even the later of the two sackings alluded to occurred at a period
which can hardly be dignified with the title of historical. The early
annals are of little scientific value, but from the accumulated mass of
myth and tradition there emerge the two facts that the Pagan dynasty
ongmated from Prome, and that it was finally established m the seats
It was to make famous not later than the middle of the ninth century.
The son and successor of Pyinbya, the founder of Pagan, was murdered
by one of his grooms, a scion of the royal family, who succeeded him.
One of the murdered kingk wives, however, escaped and gave birth to
a son, who eventually regained the throne and became the father of
Anawrata. This great ruler conquered Thaton, and from the sack
of the Taking capital brought away the king Manuha and a host of

I /IS TORY

t^3

captive artificeib, whom he employed in building the pagodab toi which
Pagan has been famous ever since He died after a reign of forty-
two years. His great-grandson, Alaungsithu, extended his sway ovel
Arakan and leigned seventy-five years , he was succeeded by the cruel
Narathu, who was assassinated by hired Indian biavoes, and ivas
known afteiwaids as the Kaldkya mui (‘the king oveithiown by the
foreigners ’) While Naiapadisithu, one of the last-named monarch’s
successors, was on the throne the kingdom attained the zenith of its
gloiy, to crumble rapidly m the thirteenth century duiing the leign of
Tayokpyemin, a monarch who earned his title by flying fiom Pagan
befoie a Chinese invasion which he had brought on his countiy by the
murder of an ambassador. The last king, Kyawzwa, was enticed to
a monastery by the three sons of Theingabo, a powerful Shan Sawb’\^a,
who compelled him to assume the yellow lobe, and divided among
themselves the lesiduc of the Pagan kingdom Since that time Pagan
has played a compaiatively unimportant part in Buimese history.
\"andabo, vlieie the treaty was signed in 1826 which put an end to the
fust Buimese Wai, lies on the Iiiawaddy in the noitli of the District.

A Distnet, with its head-quaiteis at Myingyan, was constituted m
1S85 as the Mandalay expedition passed up the Iriawaddy, and Pagan
was made the head-quarteis of a second Deputy-Commissioner’s
charge. These two Districts contained, m addition to the aieas now
forming Myingyan, portions of Meiktila and Magve, and the whole
of what IS now Pakokku Distiict , but Pakokku and Meiktila were
shortly afterwards foimed, and on the creation of the former Pagan
was incorporated in Myingyan At annexation the local officials sur-
rendered to the expedition, and there was no open hostility. The
Burmese governor, however, after remaining loyal for six months,
joined the Shwegyobyu pietender at Pakangyi in Pakokku District.
During these eaily days of Biitish dominion trade flourished on the
river bank, but throughout 1886 portions of the District were practically
held by dacoits, especially in the tract south of Pagan. The northern
and eastern areas, however, were kept quiet to a certain extent by the
establishment of posts at Sameikkon on the luawaddy, and at Natogyi
inland in the north-east of the District ; and combined opeiations from
Myingyan and Ava put a stop to the depredations of a leader who
called himself Thinga Yaza. But the mountain valleys about the base
bf Popa long remained the refuge of cattle-lifteis, robbers, and receivers
of stolen property, and at least one dacoit was still at large in this tract
ten years after annexation. In 1887 a leader named Nga Cho gave
considerable trouble in the south, and a second outlaw, Nga Tok,
harried the north. The latter was killed in 1888, but the former and
another leader, Yan Nyun, famous for his cruelties, disturbed the Dis-
trict foi two years more. By 1889 the whole of Myingyan, excepting
VOL. XVIII. I

1^4

j/ j vxar / V Disnuc t

the Popa tract, was fiee fioni dacoits , but it was not till 1890, Mhen
Yan Nyun suiiendeicd, that the entne Distnct could be legaided as
pacified Nga Cho remained at laige six }eais longer, but ceased to
be a dangerous leader when Van N)un came in

The chief objects of archaeological inteiest aie the ruined temples of
Pagan In the Natog>i to\Miship, at P^inzi, aie the luins of a moat
and wall said to maik the site of the lesidencc of a prospeious pnnee
of olden da}s In the Taungtha township, at Konpato, is the Pato
pagoda, wheie a laige festival is held cveiy Novembei Near East
Nyaungu is the Kyaukku, or lock-cave jDagoda, said to liave been built
to commemorate the floating of a stone w^hich a pongyi^ chaiged with
a breach of his monastic lows, flung into the rivei, establishing his
innocence by means of the miiacle In the cliff under the pagoda arc
several caves inhabited poiigyn , and near them are the ca\es of the
Hngetpyittaung kvawig, leputed to have been built foi Buddhist mis-
sionaries from India, and to be connected by an undeiground passage
wnth the Kyaukku pagoda, more than a mile distant Festivals arc
held in Novembei at the Zedigyi imgoda at Sale, in Febiuaiy at
the 'Phegehla pagoda at Pakannge, in the Sale towmship, in November
at the Myatshw’eku pagoda at Kyaukpadaung , and in July at the
Shinbinsagyo pagoda at Uyin, in the Sale towuiship
The population was 351,465 in 1891, and 356,052 in 1901. Its

^ , distribution in the latter yeai is shown in the tabic

Population. , ,

below'

loNMlbhlp

Area in squire
miles

Numbei of

Population

1 Population per
j square mile

Peicentage of
; variation m
population be-
tween i8yi
and 1901

Numbei of
persons able to
read and
write

■J'

Villages

Myingjan

422

175

Si,y7S

194

+ 15

20,41 S

Taungtha

516

203

57.7^9

II2

13,4.30

Natogyi

39?

160

57.33S

*45

+ 8

10,862

Pagan *

1S9

66,9J’I

+ 15

13.178

Sale

498

*57

33.993

-25

7,601

Kyaukpadaung ,

7^4

304

68,o^3

+ 2

13.853

D.stnct total

3,137

i,i8S

35<>,052

+ 1

79.342

The two towns are Myingyan, the head-quarters, and Nyaungu.
\ he population has been almost stationary for several years past, and
has increased materially only in the rathei thinly inhabited towmship of
Pagan, Elsewhere there has been a decrease, or the rise has been
insignificant Partial famines, due to scarcity of rain, have caused
considerable emigration from the Sale towmship, and similar causes
have operated elsewhere. ^ A regulai ebb and flow of population
between the Districts of Meiktila, Yamcthin, and Myingyan is regu-

AGRICULTURE

^-’5

lated largely by the barometei, but, owing to the absence of lailways,
in Myingyan till lately, the inward flow in the inoie promising seasons
has been checked. Though its late of growth has been slow, Myingyan
tanks high among the Distiicts of Upper Emma in density of popula-
tion, and the ruial population of the Myingyan township is as thick as
in many of the delta aieas. Buddhism is the pi evading religion ^ in
tact, the adherents of other leligions foim less than i per cent, of the
total, and all but a fraction of the inhabitants speak Buimese.

The number of Burmans in 1901 was 354,100, or moie than 99 pei
cent, of the total population The District is one of the feiv in Buima
that has no non-Burman indigenous laces , and the absence till recently
of a railway is doubtless lesponsible for the smallness of the Indian
colony, which numbers only about 1,400, equally divided between
Hindus and Musalmans. In 1901 the numbei of peisons diiectly
dependent on agiicultuie was 224,095, repiesenting 63 pei cent, of
the total population, compaied with 66, the coiiesponding peicentage
for the Pi o\ nice as a whole

Theie aie only 180 Chiistians, 109 of whom are natives, and Iheic
IS at present compaiatively little active missionary work.

Myingyan is, for the most part, a stietch of rolling hills, spaisely
coveied with stunted vegetation, and cut up by deep nullahs ; and most
of the cultivation is found in the long and generally .
narrow valleys separating the ridges, and on the lowei
slopes of the using giound. The cultivated aieas occui in patches.
Rich land is scaicc, the rainfall is precarious, and one of the mam
characteristics of the countiy is the laigc evtent of ya 01 ‘dry upland'
cultivation The District may be divided foi agricultural purposes
into four tracts — alluvial, upland, valley, and the Popa hill aiea — wdiile
the Cl ops growm on these may be split up into the following seven
groups . peimanently luigated nee, maym rice, mogaung iice, ya crops,
kai^g crops, ^aze crops, and gaidens. Both kai^ig and ifase crops are
grown on inundated land in the rivei-side area The ‘diy ciops,’
w^hich aie of the ordinal y kinds (millet, sesamum, and the like), are
found away from the Iirawaddy. Some little distance trom the iiver
is a strip of pool land running north and south through the west of
the Myingyan and Taungtha townships and the east of the Kyauk-
padaung township, mainly devoted to the cultivation of millet, wnth
sesamum and pulse as suboidinate crops, often as separate harvests
on one holding, oouth-wxst of this stiip, and separated from it by
the mass of Popa and the hills blanching from it, is the poorest land
in the District, occupying the greater part of the Pagan and Sale
townships. The staple crop here is eaily sesamum, followed, as a
second haivest, by peas, beans, or /u. The uplands occupying the
northern portion of the Myingyan towmship, the western portion of

126

)/y/VCVJy DISTRICT

the Natogyi township, and the eastern portion of Taungtha township
foim, with the adjoining parts of Sagaing and Meiktila, the great
cotton-growing tiact of Burma, about 200 square miles in extent,
nearly half of which lies within Myingyan Mogaung (rain-iingated)
rice lands are cultivated in the east of the Natogyi township in the
extieme north-east of the District, while may in is grown in the beds of
tanks, and the low^ei slopes of Popa are coveied with plantain groves.
'Vhe soil in the tw^o richest townships (Natogyi and Myingyan) is loam
and cla}, and the rainfall is moie legular heic than in the pooiest
townships (Sale and Pagan), w'herc giavel and sandstone piedominate.
The following table gives the chief agricultural statistics foi 1903-4,
in square miles : —

1 Township

Total ai ea

Cultivated

Irrigated

Forests

1 Mying}an .

422

183

faungtha

516

172

Natogyi

395

161

46s

Pagan

582

150 1

Sale

498

! ^13 1

Kyaukjiadaung .

724

196 !

I 6

Total

3 >i 37 1

975 1

46 S

Neaily 140 square miles of the area cultivated in 1903-4 buie
two hanests, and about 128 square miles failed to mature. In the
same year millet coveied about 420, and sesamum (chiefly the earl}
\ciiiety) 336 squaie miles. Pulse of vaiious kinds w^as grown on
137, and lice on onl} 81 squaie miles, an area quite insufiicient foi
the needs of the District. Cotton coveied 88 square miles, and
1,900 acres w’ere undei orchards, the greater pait being plantain
gloves

Repairs to the Kanna tank have added 4,000 acres to the iice
lands in the Natogyi township, but elsewhere the cultivable area has
slightly decreased of late, in consequence of the formation of ^ reserved ’
forests. The only new ciop that has met wuth success is the Pondi-
cherry ground-nut, which w'as introduced a few^ yeais ago. In 1903-4
about 800 acres of land were undei this ciop. It gives a large out-
turn and is very remunerative. The experimental cultivation of Havana
and Virginia tobacco has not met wuth success. The leaves of these
varieties are looked upon as too small, and the Bui mans decline to
take the trouble to cure them after American methods.

Practically no advances have been made under the Land Improve-
ment Loans Act. On the other hand, advances under the Agriculturists’
Loans Act, foi the purchase of seed-grain and plough cattle, are very
populai 'Phe advances, which averaged more than Rs. 25,000 m
the three yeais ending 1904, aie made on the mutual security of

AaRlCl^LTl'RE

127

the villageis requiring loan*? , then lerovciy on due date is easily
effected, and no loss has been caused to the state hy any failure in
lepayment

The District has always been noted foi its bullocks, whose quality
is due to the large areas of pasturage that exist on lands not fertile
enough for cultivation, or only occasionally cultivated. Cattle-breeding
IS practised by all the well-to-do cultivators to a greater or less extent.
Goat-breeding has largely increased of late. Buffaloes are kept along
the banks of the Irrawaddy, but aie lare in the interior. A few sheep
are reared m Myingyan town by butchers. Myingyan has always held
a high place among the pony-bieeding centres of Bunna , and locally
the palm is awaidcd to Popa by the Burmans, who credit Popa glass
and watei with special sti ength-giving propeities, and have gi\en the
local bleed the name of kyaiik<sau 7 ig~ 7 nyo. The necessity of allotting
grazing-giounds has not yet ansen, for on the uplands there is abun-
dance of waste land Inland, away from the Iirawaddy, the question
of watering the live-stock is often a difficult one.

Except in the basin of the Pin stieam, which supplies a few private
canals, there is piactically no iriigation beyond what is afforded by
tanks entirely dependent on the rainfall 01 high liver-floods. The
majority of these are in the north-east of the District, and the most
important are the Kanna and the Pyogan In 1 901-2 the newly
repaired Kanna tank began to watei the fields below it, with the
result that land, which used foimerly to be cultivated but had dropped
out of cultivation, is now being eagerly taken up. It is estimated
to be capable of iirigating 4,000 acres. The dam was seriously
breached in 1903, but has been repaired The Pyogan tank irri-
gates about 1,000 acres. In the neighbourhood of Pyinzi, in the
Natogyi township, a number of private tanks water a considerable
area; but in the whole District only 6,800 acres were returned as
irrigated in 1903-4. Of this area, 2,900 acres drew their supplies
from Government works

In 1901 the District contained 73 fisheries, of which 57 were in
the Myingyan and 16 in the Pagan township. The only important
one is the Daung, which lies about 5 miles to the south-west of
Myingyan town, and dries up enough to produce maym rice from
November to Apiil. A large number of the fishermen leave the
District annually at the end of Novembei for the delta Districts and
Katha, returning to Myingyan when the rains set in.

With the exception of a tract in the vicinity of Popa, the forests
of Myingyan consist chiefly of dry scrub growth. Here the only
plant of any importance is the Acacia Catechu^ yielding the cutch of
commerce. The cutch industry used to be flourishing, but has de-
clined of late years owing to the exhaustion of the supply, due to

T2<S .VYJXGYJN DISTRICT

overwoik in the past. Approaching Popa the scrub growth merges
into dry forest with in^nn^ and here and there thitya and teak of
poor description, while the old crater of Popa and the slopes on the
south and east sides of the hill are clothed with evergreen forest.
At the close of rgoo-i there were no ‘reserved’ foiests in the Dis-
tiict, but since then 74 square miles have been gazetted as Rescues
The area of unreserved forests is 394 square miles, but hardly any-
thing of value is left in any of the jungle tracts, and the total forest
revenue averages only about Rs 600

Iron ore and sulphur have been found in the Pagan towmship, hut
are not worked In several villages in the Kyaukpadaung township,
and at Sadaung in the Natogyi township, salt is manufactuied by
primitive methods for local consumption. Petroleum oil has been
found by the Burma Oil Company in the neighbourhood of Chauk
village m the Singu circle of the Pagan township The oil is said
to be extraordinarily low-flashing, of a quality similar to that obtained
from the Yenangyat Avells K lefinery foi extracting the naphtha has
been built, and m 1903 the company was employing a staff of
7 Americans, 47 natives of India, and 55 Burmans. I'he Rangoon
Oil Company is also boiing within the limits of the District.

Cotton-weaving is practised by women on a small scale in neaily
every village, the yarn used being generally imported from England
or Bombay. A few goldsmiths, who make orna-
conmunic^ons native wear, are found in the towns and

large villages, and at Mymgyan the inhabitants
of one whole street devote their time to casting bells, images,
and gongs from brass. Pottery is made at Yandabo and Kadaw'
in the Mymgyan towmship, and in a few other localities, but
only as an occupation subsidiary to agriculture. Lacquer-ware is
manufactured by the people of Old Pagan, West Nyaungu, and the
adjoining villages. The framew^ork of the articles manufactured is
composed of thin slips of bamboos closely plaited together. This
is rubbed with a mixture of cow-dung and paddy husk to fill up the
interstices, aftei w^hich a coat of thick black vainish {tkifsl) is laid on
the surface. An iron style is then used to grave the lines, dots, and
circles which form the pattern on the outei portion of the box.
Several successive coats of cinnabar, yellow^ oipiment, indigo, and
Indian ink are next put on, the box 01 other aiticle being turned on
a primitive lathe so as to rub off the coloui not required in the pattern.
After each coat of colour has been applied, the aiticle is polished by
rubbing with oil and paddy husk. The wwkmen w'ho apply the
different colours are generally short-lived and liable to disease ; then
gums are always spong> and discolouied. Mats and baskets are w^oven
in the villages on Popa and in the neighbourhood, where bamboos

TRADE AND COM S/VXIC ITIOAS

(20

grow plentifully The |mnt ipal tarloi} is n cotlon-ginning mill in
Myingyan town os\necl by a Hombav firm It is doing a laige buisinebs,
and buys up nearly three-fourths of the uivv cotton gro>\n in the
District, having thus replaced the hand cotton-gins which existed
in large numbers before its establishment. In addition to cotton
ginning, the mill extracts oil from cotton seed, and makes cotton-seed
cake and countiy soap, hour othei ^teani ginning factories ha\e been
established, and keen competition has caused the prices of the law
material to rule high, and has greatly benefited the cultivatois.

The external trade is monopolized by Myingyan town, Sameikkon,
Taungtha, and Yonzm in the Myingyan, and by Nyaungu, Singu,
Sale, and Kyaukye in the Pagan subdivision. The principal tiaders
at Myingyan are Chinese and Indians, but elsewheie the Bui mans still
have most of the local business in then hands 'Phe chief exports aie
beans, giam, tobacco, cotton, jaggeiy, chillies, cut(‘h, wild plums,
lacquei-waie, hides, cattle, and ponies. Chief among the imports are
rice, paddy, salt and salted fish, haidwaie, piece-goods, yarn, bamboos,
timber, betel-nuts, and petroleum The impoits come in and the ex-
ports go out by railway and steamei. Most of the business is done
at the main tiade centres, but piofessional pedlais also scour the
whole District, hawking imported goods of all sorts among the rural
population.

The branch railway line from Thazi through Meiktila to Myingyan,
commenced m 1897 as a famine relief woik, has a length of about
32 miles within the Distnct The country is well pio\ided with loads
'Phose maintained by the Public Works department have a length
of 203 miles, the most important running from Myingyan to Mahlaing
(31 miles), from Myingyan to Natogyi (19 miles), and on to Pyinzi
near the Kyaukse boundary (15 miles), fiom Myingyan to Pagan
(42 miles), from Pagan to Kjaukpadaung and Letpabya, near the
borders of Magwe District (50 miles), and from Kyaukpadaung to
Sattein and laungtha (45 miles) About 400 miles of serviceable
fail-weather roads, rather more than one-thiid of which are in the
Pagan township, are maintained by the Distnct fund

The only navigable iivei is the Inawaddy, which foims the western
bordei ^ The Irrawaddy Flotilla Company's -^^teamers (mail and cargo)
call at Myingyan, Sameikkon, Nyaungu, Singu, and Sale regularly
se\eral times a week each way, and theie are daily steamei s from
Myingyan to Mandalay and Pakokku. A large part of the trade of
the ri\erain tract is carried in country boats. The District contains
19 public femes — two managed by the M>]ngyan municipality, one by
the Nyaungu town committee, and 16 by the Deputy-Commissioner
for the benefit of the Myingyan District fund.

'Phe earliest famine still remembered occurred in 1S56-7, when the

. \f YTNGY. IjV D rs TRIG 7 '

r3o

uins aie said to have failed completely and the ciops withered in
the fields. No steameis vveic a\ailahle to bring up iice fiom Lower
Burma, noi was theie any railway to cany emigrants
Famine. down^ the result was that the people died in the
fields gnawing the bark of trees, or on the highways wandeiing in
search of food, or miseiably in then owm homes. The more desperate
foimed themselves into gangs, and murdered, robbed, and plundeied.
The Burmese government imported rice from the delta, but its price
rose to, and remained at, famine level From the epoch of this famine
changes came upon the countiy. It had brought home to the culti-
vators the unieliability of rice , and the next few years saw^ an increase
m the aiea iindei sesamum, cotton, and bdjra, and the introduction of
/07vdr The years pieceding the annexation in 1885 weie bad, and
in 1891-2 there wvas distress. In 1896-7 the eaily lain did not fall,
and the caily sesamum, the most impoitant ciop in the Distiict, failed
completely. No rain fell in eithei August 01 Septembei, the No\embei
show’ers ne\ei came to fill the eai, and famine resulted Relief w’oiks
w’erc opened without delay, and the total mimbei of units (m teims
of one day) ielie\ed fiom Novembei, 1896, to Novembei, 1897, was
four and a half millions. Remissions of thathameda owung to the
famine amounted to nearly 4 lakhs A total of lakhs was expended
out of the Indian Charitable Relief Fund on aid to the suffereis, and
nearly i lakh was spent m gianting agricultuial loans in 1896-7 and
1897-8. The total cost of the famine operations exceeded ii lakhs
The most important relief work cairied out was the Meiktila-Myingyan
railway.

The District is divided for administiative pui poses into two sub-
divisions : Myingyan, comprising the M\ingyan, Taungtha, and

, ^ ^ Natogyi townships , and Pagan, comprising the

Administration, -p, ci j 1

Pagan, Sale, and Kyaukpadaung townships These

are staffed by the usual executive officers, under w^hom are 777 village

headmen, 436 of whom draw^ commission on revenue collections. At

head-quarters are an ahimvti?i (in subordinate charge of the revenue),

a treasury officer, and a superintendent of land records, with a staff

of 8 inspectors and 70 surveyors The Distnct forms a subdivision of

the Meiktila Public Works division, and (with Meiktila and Kyaukse

Districts) the Kyaukse subdivision of the Mandalay Forest division.

The Distnct, subdmsional, and towmship courts are as a rule
presided over by the usual executixe officers An officer of the
Provincial Civil Service is additional judge of the District court,
spending half the month at Myingyan and half at Pakokku , and the
treasury officer, Myingyan, has been appointed additional judge of
the Myingyan township court The prevailing form of crime in the
District is cattle-theft. Litigation is, on the w’hole, of the ordinary type

.1/) ]f/\VSTA\l7'/0y

In king IMindon’s limi' thaihameda intKMluced into the Disliu'l,
and in 1867 the Kite is said lo ha\t‘ been Rs. 3, ^\hlle in the following
jear it rose to Rs. 5 'Fbe avciage seems lo ha\e fluctuated, but
at the time of the Rntish occupation it was nominally Rs, 10 per
household, though the actual incidence was piobably less than this.
In addition to thatha?n€da, loyal land taxes w^eie paid on islands, land
known as konayadaw, and mayin fields. Aftei annexation revenue w^as
not as a lule assessed on ))iayin rice land, but was paid on the other
two classes of royal land — in the case of island land at acre rates (from
1892 onwards) ; in the case of konayadaw at a rate lepresenting the
money value of onc-fouith of the gioss produce. The only unusual
tenure found in the Disliut wms that iindci which the kycda?i 01 com-
munal lands m 47 MTclcs in the Pagan and Kyaiikpadaiing toivnships
ivere held In foimer da\s the people had the light lo hold, but not
to alienate, these lands, and any peison w’ho left the citcle fnifeiled
the right to his holding. No lents were paid to the ciowan for the
land, but mihtaiy seivice had lo be peifoimed if lequucd The District
w’as bought iindei sumniai) settlement during the sea.sons 1899-1901,
and in 1901- 2 the formei land revenue system was superseded by the
arrangement now m foicc. Under this, the rates on non-state nee
land \ar}^ fiom 15 annas per acie on mogaung to Rs. 3 on iirigated
rice, on state lands the rate is a thud as much again. On ya land
the minimum is 4 annas and the maximum Rs. 1-4 per acre, and
non-state land is assessed at the same rate as state land The assess-
ment on orchards vanes from Rs 1-14 on non-state plantain groves
in the plains to Rs. 20 on state betel vineyards. Plantains on Popa
pay Rs. 3 or Rs 4 per acre, accoiding as they are on non-state or
state land , and all other gaiden ciops (mangoes, jacks, toddy-palms,
&c.) pay Rs. 3, ivhatevcr the natuie of the land. On riverain bobabatng
land (kawg or /aze) rates \aiy from Rs. i~-8 foi the least valuable
crops to Rs. 5-4 foi onions and sweet potatoes, the state land rates
being one-thiid highei. If an area is twuce cropped, only the more
\aluable crop is assessed. The tbathameda late pet household was
reduced from Rs. 10 to Rs. 3 in 1901

The growth of the revenue since 1890-1 is shown in the following
table, m thousands of rupees : —

1890--I i 1 900-1

190:1-4.

Land revenue .1 13 45

Total revenue . 1 5,9-i 7 j 77

4>45

9,21

Until the introduction of settlement rates, thathameda was by far
the most important source of revenue in the District. It fell from
Rs 6,40,000 in 1900-1 to Rs 2,23,000 m 1903-4

132

MVIAGYJX DISTRICT

The inrome of tlio Distiirt fund in 1903 | v\.is Rs [7,200, which is
devoted mainl) to public works There is one municipality, Mvjx-
CYAN. Pagan was formerly a municipality, but in 1903 a body known
as the Nyaungu town committee took the place of the municipal
committee.

The Dl^trlct Superintendent of police has undei him 2 Assistant
Superintendents (in charge of the M}ing)an and Pagan subdivisions),
2 inspectors, 13 head constables, 38 sergeants, and 397 constables,
distributed in ii stations and 15 outposts The military police belong
to the Mandalay battalion, and their sanctioned strength is 205 of all
ranks, of whom 145 are stationed at Myingyan, 30 at Nyaungu, and 30
at Kyaukpadaung.

A Central jail is maintained at Myingyan, and a Distiict jail, mainly
for leper prisoners, at Pagan The Myingyan jail has accommodation
for 1,322 prisoneis, who do wheat-grinding, carpentry, blacksmith’s
work, cane-woik, and weaving and gardening. The Pagan jail contains
about 60 coiiMCts, half of them lepers. In the leper section onl) the
lightest of industries aie carried on ^ in the non-lepei section the usual
jail laboui is enforced

Owing, no doubt, to its laige propoition of Burmans, Myingyan
showed m 1901 a fair percentage of literate persons — 45 in the case of
males, 2-4 in that of females, and 22 for both sexes together. In 1904,
5 special, 14 secondary, in primary, and 1,145 elementary (private)
schools were maintained, with an attendance of 17,724 pupils (in-
cluding 1,037 girls). The total has been using steadily, ha\ing been
7,539 in 1891 and 15,121 in 1901 The expenditure on education in
1903-4 was Rs. 15,300, of which Provincial funds provided Rs 12,100,
while Rs 3,100 was contributed by fees.

There are three hospitals with a total of 63 beds, and two dis-
pensanes In 1903 the numbei of cases treated \\as 23,272, including
702 in-patients, and 626 operations vveie performed. The joint income
of the institutions amounted to Rs. 12,100, towaids which municipal
and town funds contributed Rs. 6,800 , Piovincial funds, Rs 3,800 ,
the District fund, Rs. 600 , and pnvate subsciibens, Rs. 800.

Vaccination is compulsory in the towns of Myingyan and Nyaungu.
In 1903-4 the number of persons successfully vaccinated was 10,776,
representing 30 per 1,000 of population.

[B. S Carey, Settlement Report

Myingyan Subdivision. — Northern subdivision of Myingyan
District, Upper Burma, containing the townships of Myinc.van,
T\ungth\, and N\toCx\t.

Myingyan Township, — River-side township in the extreme north
of Myingyan Distnet, Upper Burma, l)ing between 2r° 2U and 21®
46' N. and 95® 16' and 95° 40' E , with an area of 422 square miles

VYAVaVLY TOJFX

^33

The greatei part is flat and (nilti\ate(l N\ith /owa?‘ and pulse, and in the
north with cotton. Rice is giown neai the liiawaddy The popula-
tion was 78,926 in 1891, and 81,978 in T901, distubuted in one town,
Myingyan (population, 16,139), the head-quarters of the township and
Distiict, and 175 villages In 1903-4 the area cultivated was 183
square miles, and the land icvenue and thaihameda amounted to
Rs. 1 , 93 , 000 -

Myingyan Town. — Head-quarters of the District of the same name
in Upper Burma, situated in 21® 30' N. and 95° 23' E., on the left
bank of the Iriawaddy, about 80 miles below Mandalay The town,
which comprises six wards, and has an area of 3I square miles,
stretches foi some distance along the bank of the rivei, but does not
extend fai inland. It is surrounded by diy, undulating country and
partakes of the natuic of its environs, containing comparatively little in
the way of natuial tiee vegetation, though steps are now being taken to
remedy this defect. It us laid out with several metalled roads, one of
the most impoitant of which is the Meiktila road passing through the
centre of the town The public buildings include a jail, a courthouse,
a hospital, and two bazars The population of Myingyan fell from
19,790 in 1891 to 16,139 in 1901 — a diminution due to the removal of
the troops as well as to other causes Its Indian community is small
for a large trading town, numbeiing only 833

The chief local manufactures are cart-wheels and castings foi biass
images, bells, and gongs , and it contains a large cotlon-ginning mill
belonging to a Gujaiati Arm. The gi eater part of the inhabitants are
engaged in tiade. Before the opening of the Toungoo-Mandalay rail-
way Myingyan was one of the largest towns on the Irraw^addy, doing
a large business with Meiktila and Yamethin Districts and with the
Southern Shan States , but since the extension of the main line of rail-
way and the depaiture of troops from the station it has lost much of
its importance. The Thazi-Meiktila- Myingyan bianch, which now con-
nects It with the mam line, was commenced m 1897 as a famine relief
work and completed in 1899 ’ hoped that its constiuction will

benefit the town In the rams the Irrawaddy mail-steamers running
between Mandalay and Rangoon call twice weekly at Myingyan.
Dunng the dry season the shifting of the channel makes it necessary
for the boats to anchor some 3 miles from the town, at Sinde. The
raihvay should remove much of the inconvenience and dislocation of
commerce caused by the stream’s vagaries. Daily steam ferries ply
between Myingyan and Pakokku on the one hand, and Myingyan and
Mandalay on the other. The town w^as constituted a municipality in
1887. Dunng the ten years ending 1901 the municipal income and
expenditure averaged between Rs 35,000 and Rs. 38,000. In 1903-4
the receipts amounted to Rs. 39,000, the mam sources of revenue

.VVLVGVjIV town

K's\

being bazai rents (Rs. 22,000) and house and land tax (Rs. 5,400).
The cxpendituic in the same yeai amounted to Rs. 41,000, made up
foi the most pait of Rs. 9,000 spent on the hospital, Rs. 7,400 on con-
servancy, and Rs 4,600 on lighting The watei-supply is drawn partly
from the river and partly from a deep well sunk by the municipality,
A scheme to cost 2| lakhs, for damming the Sunlun chaiing some
4 miles south-east of Myingyan, so as to form a reseivoir for water-
supply, has been sanctioned by Government, and is on the list of
famine relief works. The town contains a hospital and a dispensary.
The American Baptist Mission and the Buddhist community maintain
Anglo-vei nacular schools, with a total attendance of about 150 pupils.

Myinmu Subdivision.— Subdnision of Sagaing District, Upper
Burma, containing the Myinmu, Ciim^niiU, AIyvitno, and Nov/ux
townships.

Myinmu Township. — Township in Sagaing District, Upper
Burma, lying along the noithein bank of the Tiiawaddy, beU\een
21° 49' and 22*^ ro^ N and 25° 21' and 94° 41' E , with an area of 286
squaie miles It contains no high giound, and away fiom the Iira-
waddy and Mu the countiy is \ei> diy. The population was 39,386
in 1891, and 41,256 in 1901, distiibuted in 86 villages, the head-
quarters being at Myinmu (population, 3,368), on the river bank close
to the Sagaing-Alon railway, 30 miles west of Sagaing towm. The towm-
ship contains a number of large \illages . tw’o (besides Myinmu) wnth
a population exceeding 2,000, Allagappa (3,795) and Wunbye (2,o49\
and six with a population of between 1,000 and 2,000. Along the
Iiraw'addy are seveial sw^amps which aie used foi iingation, and are
themselves cultivated as they dry up The aiea cultivated in 1903-4
was 120 square miles, and the land revenue and thathameda amounted
to Rs. 1,09,000.

Myitkyina District. — Dustnct m the Mandalay Division of Uppei
Buima, the noithernmost of the Province, lying between 24° 37' and
27° 20' N. and 96° o' and 98° 20' E., wuth an area of 10,640 square
miles Only the low'er portion of the District is ‘administeied ’ ; over
the upper portion, a tract of unexplored country about the head-
waters of the Chindwin and Iriawaddy, compnsingthe Hukawng valley,
Hkamti T.ono, and what is knowm as the Sana tract, no direct adminis-
trative control is at present exercised The ‘ administered ’ area is
bounded on the north-east by the Kumpi range of hills, which forms
the northern w^atershed of the Shingaw valley , on the north by the
N’maikha down to the confluence where that stream joins with the
Malikha to form the Irraw^addy, and thence by a geographical line
running east and west at 2 5° 45' N. On the north-west it is bounded
by the Hukawmg valley ; on the w'est it is separated from the Upper
Chindw’in District by a geographical line running noith and south at

MYITKMXA niSTR/i. P

Physical

aspects.

96® E., and by the Nanisang sticani , and on the south its bordeis
inarch with Katha and Hliamo Distnets 'I'he eastern boundaiy abuts
on Yunnan. At its noithein extieniity, the dividing line between the
Distnct and China is foiined liy the vsatoishcd between the diainage ot
the Iiiawaddy on the one hand and of the Shweli and Taping on the
othei , farthei south it follows the couise of two sti earns, the Tabak
flowing south and the haknoi flowing noith, which unite to foim the
Nantabet, an eastern tiibutaiv of the Iiiawaddy, while about 5 miles
south of Siina in the south-east of the Distnct the boidei-linc again
takes the wateished between the Iiiawaddy and the Taping, till Bhaino
District is 1 cached .

With the exception of the actual basins of Us main sti earns, Myit-
kyina is mountainous throughout 'I'he eastern Kachin Hills uin down
southwards from Tibet, and extend along the whole
eastern bolder of the Distnct, then breadth fiom
the foot to the eicst (the Chinese boundary) being
30 to 35 miles, and then heights vaiying from 3,000 to 7,000 feet,
but using in places to peaks as high as 11,000 feet. On the w'estern
side of the broad Irrawaddy plain is the Kumon lange, W'hich
stretches from the Hkamti countiy east of Assam southwards to the
latitude of Kamamg (25° 30' N ), teiminating near Mogaung in the
Shwedaunggyi peak (5,750 feet). On its northern slopes the Chindwiii,
locally knowm as the Tanai, is supposed to have its souice. South
of Mogaung and the end of the Kumon lange, from which they aic
sepaiated by the valley of the Mogaung nvei, start the Kaukkwe Hills,
in about 25° 10' K. They run southwards in two diveigmg lines ,
through the eastern blanch, which skills the Iiiaw'addy, that iivei
foices Its way and forms the third 01 upper defile, the western spui
separates the Kaukkw^e valley fiom the Nanyin valley, which the
Sagaing-Myitkyina laihva) follow^s, and is continued into Katha Dis-
tiict. Other ranges deserving of mention arc the Loipyet, w^hich
separates the Nanyin and Indaw streams, starting at Kamaing ; and
the hilly countiy which includes the Jade Mines tract, dividing the
Uyu valley from the valleys of the Uppei Mogaung and the Indaw.
iMl this mass of upland is thickly clothed with jungle, and the sceneiy
IS m places magnificent

Neatly the whole of the Distnct lies within the basin of the Irra-
waddy , but ivhile on the east the countiy uses, with but a small break
heie and there, from the river to the hills on the Chinese frontiei, and
IS dramed by short direct tiibutaries, that pait of the District lymg
on the west of the Irrawaddy, nearly three-quarters of the whole, drams
by numerous sti earns into one large tributary, the Mogaung river, and
IS chaiactenzed by several valleys possessing gieat possibilities of culti-
vation. The Iiravsaddy, foimed by the confluence of the Malikha and

136

myitkyinA district

N'maikha streams in 25° 45' N,, in a southerly course across the
District, somewhat iieaier to its eastern than its western border. Above
Sinbo in the south of the Distiict the country on eithei side is a luxu-
riant plain, but at Smbo the rivei enteis the thud or upper defile The
scenery here is wild and picturesque , the iivei in the rains becomes
a foaming mass of dull white in one place, known as the ‘ Gates,’
the stream is pent up in a rock} channel, only 50 yards wide, formed
by tw^o projecting rocks below w^hich aie two huge ivhirlpools. In
flood-time this obstruction stops navigation of any kind, and launches
can negotiate it only in the diy season. 'Fhe Iiiaw^addy’s most impoi-
tant tiibutary in the District is the Mogaung river (or Nam Kawmg),
w’hich rises be} ond the ‘ administrative ’ bordei 111 the north, and flow's
past Kamaing and Mogaung in a geneial south-easteily direction,
cnteiing the mam river about 15 miles noith of Sinbo At Kamaing
It IS joined by the Indaw, w'hich luns a noi th-easterly couise from
the Indaw'g}! Lake, and at Mogaung by the Nanym (or Nam Vang),
which comes with the lailwa} from Katha District also in a north-
easterly direction The only tributary of any importance on the left
bank of the Irrawaddy is the Nantabet, ivluch uses on the Chinese
bordei and flows due w^est into the mam river about half-way betw'een
Myitkyina and Smbo.

The Indawgyj Lake, the largest in Burma, lies beUveen 25® 5' and
25® 20' N and 96® 18' and 96® 23' E, neai the south-west corner
of the Distiict, and ha.s an area of nearly 80 squaie miles It is
sui rounded on three sides by ranges of hills, but has an outlet, the
Indaw liver, on the north. The lake abounds in fish and the valley
IS feitile , but it is only beginning to lecover from the devastation
caused by the Kachin using in 1883

The hill langes consist of metamoiphic and ciystalline locks, on
which eocene and miocene tiap have been deposited. Limestone,
sandstone, clays, and ferruginous conglomerates are met wuth The
soil in the plains neai the Irrawaddy is alluvial clay and loam, and
is veiy fertile. The jade, ambei, and othei mines found m the older
formations arc refen ed to below'

The vegetation is luxuriant, but, except foi forest pui poses, has not
been exhaustively studied. Covering a considerable lange of altitude,
It must of necessity be varied. Much of the plain land consists of
stretches of elephant-grass, and bamboos are very abundant.

The Distiict possesses a varied and numerous fauna, including
the elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, beai (Tibetan and Malayan),
bison {Bos gaurus)^ tsine or hsaing {Bos ^ofidaitus)^ sdmhar^ hog deei,
barking-deer, seroiv (called by Bui mans the jungle goat), wild hog,
Avild dog, jungle cat, monkeys (including the gibbon), and the por-
cupine

JIISTORV

Ihe climate of xM}itk\iua Iroiii Dct'ornbci to March is pleasant,
It IS ver)^ cold at times, hut along the Iiiawadd) and othei \allevs
the mornings at this season are spoilt b\ lieav\ fogs, which do not
lift till 9 01 lo o’clock The lains are heav}, and from June to Octo-
ber the climate cannot he said to be healthy, malarial fevei being
prevalent even in the town. 'Phe mean maximum temperatuie from
November to the end of Febuian is about 73°, and the mean mini-
mum tempeiatuie during the same peiiod about 56°, the averages
for the lest of the >eai being about 88*^ and 71® lespectively. No
official register ot tempeiatuie is kept 'I'hc annual rainfall of the
last eight yeais, as legistered at Myitkyma, aveiaged 75 inches, and
at Mogaung 80 inches.

The pait of the Distiict hing west ot the luawaddy and the plain
oil the east of the inei once founed the old Shan piincipality ol
]\longkawng (Mogaung). In Ncy Elias's Hntory
of the Shans we are mfoimed that tins legion was
111 eaily ages inhabited by a people called Noia, who iveie consider-
ably moie civilized than tlieii neighbouis, and had a reputation as
a learned class Of these people Fiancis Buchanan Hamilton states
that they called themselves Tai J^ong (or Great Shans) and spoke
a dialect little diffeient from that of Siam , and it is a fact that at
the present day the Siamese understand the vernaculai spoken in
this neighbourhood bettei than the more adjacent Tai dialects of
the Southern Shan States. The first Sawbw’a of Mongkawmg, accoid-
ing to the chiomcle, was Sam Long Hpa (1215), wLo made extensive
conquests in all directions, and ruled ovei territory stretching fiom
Hkamti Long to Shwebo, and extending into the country of the
Nagas and Mishmis. Until 1557 the piincipahty was more 01 less
under Chinese influence , but m that yeai it was invaded by an ex-
pedition from Pegu, and theieafter was subj'ect to Burma 01 inde-
pendent, according to the strength of the reigning monaich, till U
w^as finally subjugated in 1796 and governed by wuns sent from the
court of Ava The Shans bioke out into rebellion early in the nine-
teenth century , and the important walled village of Waingmaw', just
below^ INIyitkyina on the left bank of the Irrawaddy, was destioyed
by a Burmese expedition fiom Bhamo m 1810. The final blow to
the dependency came from the Kachins, who began to press dowui
fiom the noith about fifty 01 sixty years ago. ’fhe Shans gradually
became exhausted, and in 1883 a rebellion fostered by a man named
Haw Saing, who piofessed to be the re-incarnation of a legendary Shan
prince, established Kachin predominance. This rising started with
the devastation of the Indawgyi valley, and culminated m the capture
of Mogaung. The lebels wxrc dispersed , but, as in Bhamo Dis-
tiict, the Buimese government was incapable of piotecting its Shan

13S MYITKYIYA DlsmiCT

subjects, who continued loi seveial years to pay tiibute to the local
Kachin chiefs idinms) in letuin foi fieedom from molestation, the
amount \arymg from seveial buffaloes to a handful of salt This
was the state of Myitkyma when it passed into the hands of the British
as a poition of Ehamo District, In Februaiy, 1886, the Deputy-
Commissionei of Bhamo lecened the submission of the local officials
at Mogaung , but gieat difficulties weie met with m the administra-
tion of the countiy. 1'he fiist myo-ok was assassinated only two
months aftei his at rivals the Bui man officer appointed in his place
declined to stay at Mogaung unless supported by troops , and his
successor, one Po Saw by name, fled lathei than meet the expedi-
tion sent up there in 1887, and thereaftei became openly lebellious.
He instigated the Lepai Kachins to oppose the column fiom Bhamo
that had come to appoint his successor, and attacked Mogaung, but
without success In 1887 Mogaung was stiongly stockaded, and
made the head-quarteis of the Mogaung subdivision of Bhamo Dis
tiRt Po Saw made anothci attack on it in 1888, and caused some
loss to the ganison. In 1888-9 ^'cuii punitne expeditions wx*ie dis-
patched undei the diiection of Sir Creoige AVhite against the sui-
lounding Kachin tubes, w'hich accomplished then end with little
loss, a post being established at Kamaing on the Mogaung river In
1891 the Myitkyma subdivision was formed. In 1890-r four columns
were dispatched to bung the Kachins west of the river under direct
contiol, one of wdiich visited the Hukawng valley and the ambei
and jade mines, and met a column from Assam Two of the expe-
ditions sent to subdue the Kachins east of the Irraw^addy in 1891-2
encountered very considerable difficulties. One column captured the
hill village of Sadon in the north-east of the District, and went on
to explore the banks of the Nhnaikha, m its absence the post at
Sadon was besieged by the Kachins, and had to be relieved by a column
which had been opeiatmg in the neighbourhood of Sima, south-east
of Myitkyma town In 1892-3 a mihtaiy police column concen-
tiated at Talaw'gji, a village due south of Myitkyma on the eastern
bank of the lirawaddj^, and after some opposition established a post
at Sima, On the veiy day Sima was reached Myitkyma was suddenly
laided by the Sana Kachins, a tribe living beyond the ‘admimstiative ’
limit. The subdivisional officers couithouse was burnt, and the
i>ubahddr-ms<y:iX of the Mogaung levy w^as shot dead Meanwhile
the Kachins had enveloped Sima, and Captain Morton, the com-
mandei of the expedition, was mortally wounded while withdrawing
a picket, and was with difficulty conveyed inside the fort by Surgeon-
Major Lloyd, who afterwards received the Victoria Cross for his
gallantry. Military police w^ere then dispatched fiom Myitkyma,
and a column which had been working south of the Taping was

POPCl ATTOX

sent up noithwarcls to rieate a divrisjon , hut it nas not until 1,200
rifles had been railed up and consideiable fighting (invoking the
death of seveial Kuiopean officeis) had occuiu‘d, that llie Kachiiu
were finally scalteied at Palap, south of Sima. After the foimation
of Myitkyma District in 1895 an expedition was sent to punish the
Sana Kachins foi their raid on Myitkyma, and twenty-four villages
were heavily fined. The last fighting was in 1899-1900, when an
expedition sent to explore the country east of the N’maikha was cut
off by a force of Chinese, who lost 70 killed and many wounded
before they gave w'ay.

Nearly one-third of the population inhabiting the Kachin Hills in
the east were only ‘estimated' in 1901, owing to the impossibility of
obtaining reliable supervision in that 1 emote and
backward area. The population of the District was
returned as 51,021 in 1891 and 67,399 m 1901. Its distribution in the
latter veai is shown m the following table —

Number of

Township

• as

I'MU

niurr or

' a.

5 .

pulation pc
quare mile

‘0 j-'-t?

0 tf)

'' s

Mogaung

1 3490

j 226

1 S.S 67

1 - ,

.*1 '

•! 7r.s

Kamaing

i 2,550

1 1 26

y,687

i,yo 4

Myitkyma

1 4^00

, 582

r,8,845'

3,367

District total

j 10,6^0

1 ,

67,399

1 6 ,

8,009

^ Made up ot 17,560 in the regular 1 } eiminciatcd and -’1,285 in tie
‘ estimated ’ areas

Though the enumeiation of 1901 was admittedly partial, it seems
clear that a substantial increase in the population had taken place
during the previous decade. There is a ceitain amount of immigration
from China (including both Chinamen and Shan-Chinese), and to
a smaller extent from the Shan States also. Rather more Buddhists'
than Animists were enumerated in the areas regularly dealt with
in 1901, but in the District as a whole Animists are m the majont}.
Kachin is the piincipal language, and Shan is more spoken than
Burmese.

The most numerous indigenous lace is that of the Kachins, who
form rather more than half the total population. They inhabit the hills
on both sides of the Iiiawaddy over all the noithein and north-eastern
parts of the Distiict. The Lisaws, Szis, Lashis, and Mai us are piacti-
tally all lesidenls of the ‘ estimated ’ areas, and then numbeis are not
precisely known. Shans numbered 17,300 m 1901, including Shan-
Chinese, who possess about a dozen villages. They are found for the

VOL. xvin. k:

140

,Vy/TA^ymA DISTRICT

most patl in the M>itkyina plain The Buimans numbered onl\
6,600, living in the n\ei vallev, mostly in Shan villages The total
of Chinamen was 3^600, most of them tiadeis in and near Mogaung
and Myitkyina town. A tribe peculiai to the District is the Hpons,
who inhabit the third defile and a few villages north of it in the
Mankin valley, and are indispensable to the keeping open of the
river during the rains They resemble the ordinary Shan-Buimans in
dress and features, and appear to have been returned as such in 1901 ,
but they have their own dialect, now dying out, and worship only the
one great 7 iat of the hills Natives of India numbered about 5,000 in
1901, nearly four-fifths of w^hoin weie Hindus. The gieat part of this
alien population is composed of military police and other Government
and railway employes. There are, however, a certain number of Indian
traders m Myitkyina town Assuming that practically all the inhabi-
tants of the ‘estimated’ areas were cultivators, about 52,700 people
were dependent directly on agriculture in 1901, or 78 per cent of
the total population Of these, more than 30,000 were probably
supported by taimgya (shifting) cultivation alone.

The last enumeration showed a total of 161 Chiistians in the
District, of whom 116 w’eie natives The Ameiican Baptist Mission
has a repiesenlative at Myitkyina and has opened a Kachin boys’
school.

With lespect to agiicultuie, the District may be divided into tw'o
portions the level valley lands on the banks of the Irrawaddy and its
Agriculture tributaries, and the hills. In both legions the
staple crop is rice, but theie is a difference m the
method in which it is grown. The best iice lands are those in
the valley of the Nanyin, and, generally speaking, the soil in the
liver basins is extremely fertile, and, the rainfall being sufficient, rice
is very easily grown , indeed the ground will produce almost any-
thing, as has been proved by the natives of India who live at
Myitkyina. Rice is grown in the plains in the usual manner, that is,
in embanked fields. Another less common method of cultivation,
which is also practised in the lowlands, consists m cutting down the
jungle, firing it, ploughing the ashes into the soil, and then sowing the
seed broadcast. Fields cultivated in this manner are known as lebok,
A plot of land thus dealt with cannot be worked for more than two
years, after which it lies fallow for some six or seven. Tatmgya is
practised in the hills In the case of cultivation of this kind, a hill-side
is selected, the jungle on it is cut and burnt, and when the rains have
begun the rice seed is dibbled into the ground, the crop being reaped
in the cold season. It is a method confined to the hills, as its name
signifies Taujigya land is cropped only twice as a rule, and is left
fallow for 9 or to years subsequently.

iGRrcri/n i^r

14T

The following hible e\hil)ils, in ^quaie miles, the (bief agiieultuiMl
statistics of the Distiict foi 1903-4. 'The aiea cultisaled c‘\clucles
taung\'a cultivation, which is the most pievalent foim

Township

Total area

Cultn ated i Irrigated

Forests

Mogaung

3490

6 1 05

)

Kamaing

2.650

f 6,130

Myitkyina

4 , 5 °o

16 1 4-5

1 Total

10,640

23 ' 5

6,130

Rice coveis the greater pait of the cultivated area A little tobacco
is grown on the alluvium close to the nvei banks, and potatoes and
gram have been tried successfully by natives of India at Myitkyina.
On the hills, in addition to rice, ciops of cotton, sesamum, and millet
are produced, as well as opium foi local consumption, and a little tea
IS grown in some of the hill villages on the west bank of the Iirawadd)

The aiea undei cultivation is steadily incieasing, but, as the Distiict
has not yet been cadastrally surveyed, estimates made of the expansion
are of little value. The growth is most noticeable in the Nanyin valley,
near the lailway line, and in the legion lound the Indavvgyi Lake. Of
new pioducts, Havana tobacco and Mocha coffee have been mtioduced
into the Distiict The former has proved successful, but it is still too
soon to pass any opinion on the prospects of the lattei. Peach-trees
thrive in the Government expeumental gaiden at Myitkyina, and yearly
pioduce good crops; but apples, plums, pears, and nectaiines, all of
which are being tried, have as yet yielded no lesults. A few years ago
the agriculturists showed no disposition to take loans from Government,
but this feeling has died out, and theie is now no prejudice against this
form of assistance. The loans made by the state are devoted for the
most part to the purchase of plough cattle, and are recovered with little
or no trouble The amount advanced during the seven years ending
1905 averaged about Rs. 6,000 annually.

There is no peculiarity about the local breeds of cattle. The beast
most in favour for agricultural purposes is the buffalo. Large numbers
of cows are, however, bred for milch purposes by natives of India living
at Myitkyina, Mogaung, Kamaing, Waingmaw, and Hopin. Practically
no ponies and only a few goats are kept, but sheep are imported during
the dry season from China. A large number of mules are brought m
from China in the open season for hire as transport animals, but there
is no mule-breeding within the District. No grazing grounds have
been regularly defined. Fortunately, however, owing to the heavy
rainfall and the scant dimensions of the cultivation, lack of fodder is
unknown.

^ \^ery little land is irrigated in the District, the small weirs at Sinbo,

K 2

142

)fy/TKYmA DISTRICT

Katcho, Waingniavv, Hopin, and other villages each supplying only
a few acres. The total area returned as under irrigation in 1903-4
was 5 square miles, nearly all of \vhich consists of rice lands in the
Irrawaddy valley. The wen on the Nanlon stream near Waingmaw
was built by Government in 1899 at a cost of Rs. 11,000. The
Indawgyi I^ke abounds with fish, but no other fisheries are of any
importance.

Myitkyina possesses both hill and plain forests. The forests of the
plains are much mixed with elephant-grass, and in the drier portions
the characteiistic trees are Dipterocarpus tuberculaius
Forests. species of Shona, Butea, &c., while by far the

commonest tree in the moister portions is the silk-cotton tree {Bombax
malabaricu 7 n). The northern limit of teak is here reached, and very
few trees are found north of Myitkyina town. A consequence of this
IS that where teak occurs it does not ascend the hills to any consider-
able height, but is found chiefly just along then bases. The finest
teak aieas are near the Indawgyi Lake. Though a considerable
quantity of india-rubber (Fia/s e/asfica) nominally comes from Myit-
kyina, it is in reality all collected beyond the ‘ administrative ’ bordei
and imported The aiea under ‘reseived’ forests is 130 square miles,
and the forest receipts m 1903-4 weie i| lakhs "With the exception
of india-rubber, the trade in which has shrunk to very small propor-
tions within the last two years, theie are no minoi forest pioducts
of importance.

The principal minerals aie jade, mined m the noith-w^est of the
District, gold, found m the Irrawaddy, rubies, exti acted at Nanyaseik,

Minerals.

13 miles above Kamaing on the Nanya stream, and
corundum at Mamve, on the Indaw stream Beyond

the ‘ administrative’ border there are amber-mines.

Jade is worked in quarries near Tawmaw and Hweka, close to the
Upper Chindwin District, and in river-mines at Mamon on the Uyu
chaung. The quarries at Tawmaw have pioduced immense quantities
of the stone, but it does not appioach in quality that obtained m
boulders in the river banks or at the bottom of the stream. For the
Burmese and Chinese market valuable jade has to satisfy rigid con-
ditions of colour, transparency, brilliancy, and hardness. The Tawmaw^
stone, which is of a particular shade of dark green, satisfies the first
condition, but fails in regaid to the other three. The method of
working the quarries is primitive The first fractuie being brought
about by the application of artificial heat follow^ed by cold at night,
crow-bars are driven in and large blocks are obtained, which are broken
up into a shape and size suitable for transport, either on mules to
Kamaing or on bamboo rafts down the Uyu to Kindat. An ad
valorem duty of 33^ per cent, on the output is collected at Mogaung

TRADE AyD COMMUXICATIO^^A

143

and Kindat This duty a\cnaged Rs. 50,000 during the last three
years, the out-tuin of jade in 1903 being 1,340 cwt., valued at
Rs. 1,22,000

The luby tract at Nan>'aseik is worked after a primiti\e fashion by
Government licensees. The miners dig in shallow pits' scattered over
a wide area, as the luby-bearing soil {pyo}i) occurs in pockets. The
revenue from this souice fluctuates very considerably, depressions
following prosperous peiiods from time to time. It reached Rs. 33,000
in i 895-'6, but dropped to Rs. 80 in 1902-3. The tract is noiv
practically deserted.

The amber-mines aic situated beyond the ‘administrative’ frontier
in the Hukawng valley near the village of Maingkwan. The shafts
dug for its extraction aie only wide enough foi a man to descend and
ascend by steps, and aie seldom more than 40 feet in depth As with
jade, amber is found in pockets, and a cluster of pits always shows
the existence of such a pocket The product, unlike jade, is bought
only by the Burmans, and is by them used for the manufacture of
trinkets and beads. The corundum mines at Manwe are worked in
a similar manner, but are of little value. Gold-washing is fitfully
carried on in the Irrawaddy by Shans, Chinese, and Burmans. A
steam dredgei has been at work since 1902 above Myitkyina dredging
for gold, and the ventuie shows promise of success.

There are no arts 01 manufactures worthy of mention. The Kachin
women weave a strong cloth, and every Kachin
makes his own rice-liquor {cheroo) , but both weaving JmmiSons.
and brewing aie on a very small scale, and neithei
the cloth nor the hquoi is intended foi other than home consumption

The import tiade is entirely in the hands of natives of India
and Chinese, the articles imported by railway from Lower Burma and
Mandalay being salt, piece-goods, hardware, yarn, crockery, and
matches for the Myitkyina and Mogaung bazars, which aie the two
piincipal distributing centres foi those commodities. From Yunnan
the Chinese bring in fruit, poultry, sheep, and manufactured articles,
which foi the most part take the form of pots and pans, umbrellas,
rugs, and clothing. The exports are jade, amber, and india-rubber
from the Hukawng valley, and teak-wood. The jade goes mostly to
China and the other articles to Lower Burma. The traffic in jade
and rubber is chiefly in the hands of Chinese, who visit the jade-mines
yearly in large numbers , the timber trade is managed by an English
firm. The total value of the imports from Western China in 1903-4,
over what are known as the Waingmaw and Kazu routes, wa.s about

lakhs, the corresponding figure foi exports being about a lakh.
Between the Kachms in the hills and the Shans in the plains there
IS some tiaftic in liquor, opium, salt, and sesamum , but the instincts

144

MYITKYINA DISTRICT

of the Kachins are not commeicial, and at present there seems little
prospect of an expansion of tiade in this direction. Maingna and
Waingmaw, east of the Irrawaddy, and Myitkyma, IMogaung, and
Kamamg, west of the Inawaddy, aie the chief empoiia of what Kachin
trade there is Owing to difficulty of transport, trade with China is
not likely to mu ease in the immediate futuie.

Gf communications the most notewoithy is the lailway, which luns
diagonally across the greater part of the centie of the District from
the south'll est, and, passing through Mogaung, has its terminus at
Myitkyma. Next to the railway m importance comes the Iirawaddy,
^^hlch is navigable all the year round by boats and small steamers
between Watugyi and Simbo. Other waterways are, however, useful.
The Mogaung stieam can be used at all seasons by boats as far noith
as Laban, and during the rains by launches up to Kamamg, the
Indaw I^ke and chaung are both navigable throughout the year by
country boats, and small country craft can ply on the Nantabet at
all times of the year as far as Kazu.

The principal land communications are . the load from Waingmaw
to.Sadon and thence to China by two alternative routes, the fust
through Wawchon and the Kowlaing pass and the second by way of
the Sansi gorge ; and the road from Waingmaw to Sima and thence
by Palap to Sima-Pa m China. Graded mule-tracks have been made
by the Public Works department to Sadon and Sima, the distance
being 41 and 42 miles respectively, and othei Government roads
connect Maingna with Kvitu, a distance of 14 miles, Mogaung with
Kamamg (27 miles), Kamamg with Nanyaseik (13 miles), Hopm on
the railway line with Lonton on the Indawgyi Lake (28 miles), and
Puiigatong on the Sadon-Waingmaw road with Loingu on the N’maikha
(18 miles) All these roads are partly bridged, but are unmetalled,
and are maintained from Provincial funds. Rough mule-tracks connect
Sadon with Sima and Sima with Nahpaw, and are cleared of jungle
yearly by civil officers, the cost being met from Provincial funds The
tracks maintained from the District fund are : from Mogaung to Tapaw,
6 miles , from Mogaung to Koywa, 5 miles , and from Kamamg to
Namlik village, 21 miles. Several ferries cross the Irrawaddy, the
most important of which connects Myitkyma with the eastern bank.

Foi the purposes of administration the District is divided into two
subdivisions : the Myitkyina subdivision and township , and the

. . ... .. Mogaung subdivision, comprising the Mogaung and

Administration. ° ° ^ ? xr-n j

Kamaing townships The Kachin Hills are admin-

isteied under the Kachin Hill Tribes Regulation of 1895. In the

Myitkyina township there arc three civil officers’ charges the Sadon,

Sinu, and Myitkyma hill tracts The fust two aie undei special

civil officcis stationed at Sadon and Sima, the last is in chaigc of

JI)A//\ISTK I no X

145

the i>ubdivi‘5ional police officci at ]M}itk\ina 'The hilK nebt of the
Irra^^addy aie adminibtcred by the subclivibional officer of Mogaung
and the to^^nshlp officei of Kamaing Ub cnil officerb At the District
head-quaiteis aie the akN^nvun in subordinate charge of the revenue,
and the tieasuiy officei. iMvitkyina is the liead-quarterb of the
Executive Engineei m chaige of the iMyitkyina Public Woiks division,
comprising the Myitkyma, Sadon, and Katha subdivisions , and of
the Deputy-Consci valor of Koiests in charge of the ISIyitkyma division,
which, except for a small aiea in the west, is contei minous with the
District.

There are no special civil judges. The subdivisional and township
officers do all the cnil work in then lespective courts Petty civil
cases in the Kachin hill tracts aic settled by the duwas ot headmen
Undei the Kachin Hill Tubes Regulation of 1895 the Deputy-Com-
missioner IS vested VMth the powers of a Sessions Judge in cases
arising in these tracts, the Commissioner confirming death sentences.
The dimas are also allowed to settle petty criminal cases according
to tribal custom As in Bhamo Distiict, the smuggling of opium from
China and the Kachin Hills is v’ei} common, and the District is never
wholly fiee from ciimes of violence committed by the Kachms

The revenue is made u[) of the thatha?neda tax, which is paid by
the non-Kachin population at the late of Rs 10 per household, the
tribute levied fiom Kachms at the late of Rs per house m the
tiacts undei the end officei s of Mogaung and Kaniamg, and at a lowei
late elsewhere , land lev^enue paid by all cultivated lands in the plains ,
loyalty on minerals, and revenue fiom stamps, excise, and fishenes.
Nearly all the land is state land, the revenue payable being the value
of one-tenth of the gioss produce (as fixed by the township officer with
the aid of assessors), except on lands given out on lease, on which
a rate of Rs. 1-8 per acre is levied, these being the only surveyed
lands m the District.

The growth of the revenue since the formation of the District is
shown m the following table, m thousands of rupees -

1903-4

20
1,88

The thatha 7 neda^ which is at present the mam source of revenue,
increased from Rs. 46,000 in 1 900-1 to Rs. 73,000 in 1903-4

The income of the District fund, which is derived chiefly from bazars
and ferries, was Rs. 18,000 in 1903-4. No municipalities have been
constituted.

Undei the Distiict Supeiintendeiit of police aie 2 Assistant Supei-

14^ MYTTKYINA DISTRICT

iiitendent^^ in chaige of the subdivisions, an inspectoi, 4 head con-
stables, and 96 men. There are 4 civil police stations and an outpost,
with the addition of village police at Lonton, Sinbo, Sadon, and Sima.
The District is gairisoned by a strong foice of military police, con-
sisting of 9 British officers, 41 native officers, and 1,612 rank and file
Of these, 947 are stationed at JVhitkyinn; and posts aie held at
Mogaung, Kamaing, Foit Harrison (Sadon), Fort Morton (Sima), and
AA'a3abu on the N’maikha, at each of \^hlch is an assistant commandant,
also at Nahpa>^ (in the cold season), Lapyc, W'aingmavv, Lonton,
N’pum Bum, Sinbo, and Palawgyi Theie is no jail, prisoneis being
sent to Katha when sentenced to impiisonment foi a term exceeding
one month.

The proportion of persons able to read and wiite was shown in 1901
as 28 per cent, in the case of males and 2 per cent in the case of
females, 01 17 per cent foi both sexes together. These figures,
however, leave out of consideration the population of the ‘estimated’
tiacts, wheie the numbei of literate persons must have been infinitesimal.
A school foi Kachin children is maintained by the American Baptist
Mission, but most of the schools are monastic, and in the hill areas
even the elementary teaching of the pongyi kyaung is absent. In 1904
the institutions included one secondary, 21 primary, and 61 elementary
(prnate) schools, wuth an attendance of 1,188 pupils (including 90 giils),
as compared with 1,164 in 1901 The expenditure on education in
i903“'4 was Rs. 1,600, deiived wholly from PioMncial funds.

Theie are 6 hospitals, with accommodation foi 67 in-patients In
1903 the numbei of cases treated was 20,054, including 795 in-patients,
and 300 opeiations were performed. The total expendituie ol
Rs 26,000 is derived almost wholly from Piovmcial funds A number
of patient-3 w'ere treated in the hospitals at the different military police
outposts

In 1903-4 the numbei of peisons successfully vaccinated was 772,
lepiesenting ix per 1,000 of population

[I. End Gray, Diary of a Joiir?iey to ihe Bor Kha 7 ntt Country and
Sources of the Irrawaddy (1893) , Prince Henry of Orleans, Du Tonkin
aux Indes (Pans, 1898) ]

Myitkylna Subdivision. — Eastern subdivision and township of
Myitkyina Distiict, Upper Burma, l)iiig betw^een 24° 37' and 25® 45' N.
and 96® 42' and 98° 20' E., wdth an aiea of 4,500 square miles. It
compiises the Inawaddy valley, here of considerable width, and the
hills up to the Chinese fiontier. Within its geographical limits are
the three Kachm Hill Tracts, administered under the Kachin Hill
Tiibes Regulation by civil officeis with head-quaiters at Sadon in
the noith-cast, Sima in the south-east, and Mviikmna (popula-
tion, 3, 6 1 8), the head-quaiteis of the Distiict and towmship The

MYITXGE

147

population ot the township, excluding the first two of these tracts,
was i7,5t>o in 1901 ; that of the Sadon tiacL being 14,012, and
that of the Siina tiact 7,273 The Myitkyina Hill Tiact was not
foiiiied till 1904. In the plains, Shans, Burmans, and Kachins are
lepiescnted in the latios of 7, 3, and 1 approximately , elsewhere
the inhabitants arc practically all Kachins In 1901 the subdivision
contained 582 villages, of which 477 vveie in the Kachm Hill Tiacts
as then constituted. In 1903-4 the aiea cultivated was 16 square
miles, in addition to t(iu?igyas. The land levenuc and thathameda
amounted to Rs 46,000

Myitkyina Town. -Head-quaileis of the District of the same
name in Uppei Burma, situated in 25° 23' N. and 97° 24' E., on
a level plain surrounded by hills on the western bank of the Ina-
v\addy, and at the tei minus of the Sagamg-Myitkyina railway, 724
miles from Rangoon. Population (1901), 3,618. The station has
lisen to importance only since the Biitish occupation Prior to 1892
It was a small Shan>Burmese village, its name denoting the fact that
It was neai to the banks of the great river, the Iirawaddy , and even
now the militaiy police and the officials form more than a fourth
of the inhabitants. The town was attacked by a party of Sana
Kachins in Decembei, 1892, when the military police subahddr-mVi]o\
was killed and the subdivisional officer’s couithouse and residence
w’eic burnt, but since then its history has not been maiked by any
Stirling incidents Myitkyina is inci easing in importance as an ex-
change for Chinese traders, who bring laige quantities of opium, and
take away india-rubbei and jade and foieign commodities brought
up by lail Details of the fiontiei tiade, which converges almost
entirely at Myitkyina, aie gi\en in the District article The town
contains a bazar and the usual public buildings

Myitmaka. - River of Lower Burma. See Rangoon River

Myitnge (01 Doktawaddy). — River of Buima, one of the principal
tubutaries of the Iriavvaddy. It rises in about 23° 18' N. and
98° 23' E., in the Noithein Shan State of North Hsenwi, wheic
it is knowm as the Nam Tu. Its course is in the main south-westerly,
and first passes through the States of North Hsenwi, Tawngpeng,
and Hsipaw", the first and last of which have their chief towns on
Its banks. Foi the latter half of its course of 130 miles the river
forms the boundaiy, fiist betw^een the States of Hsipaw and Lawksawk,
and next between the Districts of Mandalay and Kyaukse. It falls
eventually into the Irrawaddy about 12 miles south of Mandalay,
immediately opposite the town of Sagaing The Myitnge is na\i-
gable only up to the point at which it reaches the plains. The
Rangoon- Mandalay Railway ciosses it neai its mouth, and it will
shoitly be budged at Hsipawx The principal tributary is the Nam

MYITXGE

Ma, which joins it fiom the east, a little to the east of the town
of Hsipavv.

Myittha. — Southern subdivision and township of Kjaukse District,
Upper Burma, lying between 21° 12' and 21° 33' N and 95° 57' and
96° 25' E, with an aica of 277 squaic miles The population A\as
43,645 in 1891, and 56,752 in 1901, distributed in 310 ullages The
head-quaiteis are at Myittha (population, 3,023), on the lailway 12
miles south of Kyaukse tov\n "J’he lailway luns north and south
through the centie of the township, the portion to the east, drained
by the Panlaung river, being a flat plain bounded by the Shan plateau,
with a scanty lamfall, but a good supplj of iirigation canals , while
the western poition, once the Dayegaung township, is wateied by the
Samon river and the Sama canal In 1903-4 the township con-
tained 104 square miles under cultivation, of which 75 squaie miles
were irrigated, and the land levenue and thathameda amounted to
Rs. 3,24,000

Mylliem {Mulhem) —Petty State in the Khasi Hills, Eastern Bengal
and Assam, in the immediate vicinity of Shillong The population
in 1901 ^sas 17,863, and the gross revenue in 1903-4 was Rs 9,619
The principal products aie rice, potatoes, maize, and millet The
manufactures are iron hoes and baskets. There are deposits of iron
in the State, but they are not w'oiked
Mymensingh District {jMaimansingh) — Distiict in the north of
the Dacca Division, Eastern Bengal and Assam, lying between 23° 57'
and 25° 26' N and 89° 36' and 91° 16' E , with an area of 6,332
squaie miles It derives its name from the old pargana 01 fiscal

division of Maimansmgh On the north and east the District maiches
with Assam, being bounded on the north by the Garo Hills, and
on the east by Sylhet , on the south-east it adjoins Tippera, and on
the south Dacca , on the west it is separated by the Jamuna (or
Brahmaputia) from the Districts of Pabna, Bogra, and Rangpui

Until the beginning of the nineteenth century the mam stieam
of the Brahmaputia flowed through the middle of the District from
north to south : and although it now passes along
aspects western boundary and the Old Brahmaputra has

shrunk to a mere fraction of its former volume, its
channel cuts the District into two great natural divisions wuth a marked
difference betw'een the country on either bank. The people to the east
of it resemble in their dialect, social customs, and observances those of
the adjoining District of Sylhet, wdiile those to the w^est are like the
inhabitants of Pabna, Dacca, and Faridpur To the east the country
is inteisected b> maishes 01 Jiaoi^s^ wheie laigc herds of buffaloes
aie grazed in the cold season, and the whole country is submerged
duiing the lains, e*\cepL the crowded village sites w’hich aie aitilicially

MYMENSIXGB DISTRICT

1+9

raised above the ordinaiy flood-level The geneial elevation of the
countiy west of the Old Biahmaputra is higher, and it contains a great
part of the formation known as the Madhupur jungle, which stietches
northwaids from the boundary of Dacca Distiict almost as far as the
town of Mymensmgh This tract, which may be said to constitute a
thud natuial division of the District, has an average height of about
40 feet above the level of the plains, and nowhere exceeds 100 feet;
it IS about 45 miles m length and from 6 to 16 miles in breadth, with
a total area of about 420 squaie miles The formation, which consists
of a stiff layei of led ferruginous clay lesemblmg that of the Barind
in North Bengal, is of considerable depth and capable of offering a
tenacious resistance to the erosive action of rivers , and when the
Old Brahmaputra, after having laised its bed and lost its velocity,
was no longei able to bold its owm against the Meghna, this bank of
clay foiced it to swing westwards and to mingle its waters with those
of the Jamuna The Susang hills rise on the northern bordei , but
elsewheie the District is level and open, consisting of well-cultivated
fields, dotted with villages, and intersected by numerous small riveis
and channels.

The Madhupui jungle divides the Distiict into two portions
The western and smallei portion is watered and diamed by the iivei
system connected with the Ja\iun\, the eastern by the Old Brahma-
pu I'RA and its branches together with othei numerous streams, which,
issuing fiom the Garo Hills on the north, flow eastwards and south-
waids into the Suima and Meghna. The numerous blanches and
tiibutaiies of the Jamuna afford exceptional facilities for iiver tiade ,
of the former, the Dhaleswari, and of the latter, the Jhinai, an effluent
of the Old Brahmaputra, are the most important The Surma (also
known as the Dhaleswail or Bheramona) comes down fiom the Surma
valley in Assam and foims generally the eastern boundary, taking
the name of the Meghna in the extreme south-east of the District.
Two branches of the Meghna, the Dhanu and the Ghora-utra, are
navigable throughout the year. The Kangsa, a narrow stream, but
deep and navigable throughout the year by boats of considerable
burden, forms the boundaiy for a short distance between Mymensmgh
and Sylhet. There aie several marshes in the east and south-east
of great size and depth, which swarm with fish.

The greater part of the District is covered with lecent alluvium,
which consists of coarse gravels near the hills, sandy clay and sand
along the course of the rivers, and fine silt consolidating into clay
in the flattei parts of the river plain , beds of impure peat also
commonly occui The red fenugmous clay of the Madhupui jungle
belongs to an oldei alluvial foimation.

Tlic District contains no Govciniiient foiests, but the Madhupui

1 50 J/ YMEySLYGJI DISTRICT

jungle lb covered with a deiibe growth of tall trees overrun with
creepers, with numerous laige grasses at their base The forest is
similai 111 composition to that undei the Himalayan range, containing
a mixture of Leguminosae^ Comhrefaceae^ Anacardtaceae^ Urticaceae^
Jle/iaceae, and Sapindaceae, In the north the Susang hills aie covered
^Mth a thick thorny jungle The surface of the marshes in the east
and south east of the Distiict eithei shows huge stretches of inundated
rice, 01 is covered by matted floating islets of sedges and grasses and
i\ater-lilies, the most striking being the makana {Euryale ferox) , while
the ri\ei banks and the artificial mounds on which habitations are
situated are, where not occupied by gardens, densely covered with a
scrubby jungle of semi -spontaneous species, from which rise bamboos
with a few^ taller trees, among which the commonest is the jiyal
{Odina Wodter) and the most conspicuous the red cotton-tree {Bombax
malabaricum)

Leopards are found thioughout the District, and tigers, buffaloes,
and w’lld hog aie numerous in the Madhupur jungle and the sub-
montane tiacts in the north. Deer are abundant in the same localities,
the sdmbar {Cenms umco/or) and the hog deer being the most common ,
the barking-deer is also found, and the harasinghd {Cerviis diwauceh)
IS also met wnth in the grass} plains at the foot of the hills. Elephants
abound in the CJaro and Susang hills, and occasionally commit great
depiedations among the crops in the vicinity. The riveis and marshes
swarm with fish, which are dried at Kishorganj and expoited to Assam,
(Chittagong, and Rangpur.

The temperature changes but little betw'een April and October ; the
cueiage maximum falls from 91® in April to 86® in October, w^hilc
the highest aveiage minimum is 78® in July, .Vugust, and Septembei,
and the mean is almost constant at 82°. In January the average
minimum falls to 53° and the mean temperature to 64®. The monsoon
lainfall begins in May and, owning to the ascensional motion of the
monsoon emrent caused by the Gaio Hills, is heaviei throughout
the season than in any other inland tract of Eastern Bengal. The fall
IS II inches in May and 17*9 in June, after which it slowdy diminishes
to 12*3 in Septembei , the average fall for the year is 86 inches. The
heaviest fall recoided was 134 inches in 1865, and the lightest 57 inches
in 1883. Though floods may occur in any monsoon month, very
heavy precipitation occurs either earl} or late in the season, being
due to depressions from the Bay which break up on reaching the
Assam Hills

The earthquake of 1885 caused considerable damage, especially
along the north of the Distiict, which lay on the arc of greatest
intensity The great earthquake of 1897 shook the District even
moic violently, especially in the noith, below’ the Claio Hills, m the

HISTORY

JamalpUl and Netrakona siibdi\isions. Throughout the District buck
buildings were destioyed oi seiiously damaged , houses were half
buried; sand was upheaved through fissures m the soil, and spread
over the surface, damaging the nee crop , wells ran dry, and tanks had
their bottoms raised by the upheaval of the soil. The mischief, how-
ever, did not end here, for the beds of a large number of rivers
formerly navigable were raised, rendering boat traffic impracticable
except during the rains, roads and bridges were injured, and consider-
able damage was also done to the permanent way and bridges on the
Dacca- Mymensingh Raihvav, where traffic was suspended for a fortnight.
'The cost of repairs in Mymensingh town to Government buildings
alone was estimated at a lakh the private losses in the whole District
were estimated at 50 lakhs, while 50 lives were lost.

In ancient times the District formed part of the old kingdom of
Pragjyotisha, or KamarCipa as it was subsequently called, whose ruler
Bhagadatta was one of the gieat chiefs who is said
to have fought at the battle of Kuuikshetra. Tn
the Mahabharata he is styled the king of the Kiiatas, and his kingdom
is said to have extended to the sea His capital was at Gauhati in
Assam, but the site of a palace believed to have been erected by him
IS still pointed out in the Madhupui jungle at a place known as Baia
'intha (‘twelve shrines^), where a fair is held annually in April. The
kingdom was ruled by a succession of princes of Mongoloid stock, and
was still flourishing when visited b> Hiuen Tsiang m the seventh
century. At that time its southern boundaiy seems to have cone-
sponded with the present Dhaleswaii in Dacca District, while it
extended westwards as far as the Karatoya rivei. The portion of the
Distnct to the west of the Old Brahmaputra was included in Ballal
Sen’s dominions, but not so the tract to the east of that river; the
system of Kulinism instituted by that monarch is still in full force in
the former, while it is almost unknown in the latter, tract. The
Muhammadans first entered Bengal in 1199, Eastern Bengal was
not subdued till latei. In 1351 the whole province was united by
Shams-ud-dm Ilyas Shah^ and Sonargaon, near Dacca, became the
residence of the governors of Eastern Bengal. Eastern Bengal subse-
quently became the seat of dissensions and rebellions, but it was again
subdued by Mahmud Shah in 1445 His family reigned till 1487, and
during their time this tract foimed the province of Muazzamabad,
which apparently extended to Laur in Sylhet at the foot of the Garo
Hills. Local tradition ascribes the subjugation of eastern Mymensingh
to Sultan Husain Shah and his son Nusrat Shah. The former estab-
lished a fort at Ekdala, not far from the southern boundary of the
District, whence he sent an expedition against the Ahoms. Pargana
Husainshahi is said to have been named after him, and Nusratshahi,

VYME ARSING ff DISTRICT

including Susang and twenty-one other aftei his son. The

conquest does not, howovei, seem to ha\e been complete, and in the
lattei half of the siKteenth centuiy we find that liastein Tjengal wus
again split up into a number of pett> vStates luled by independent chiefs
locally known as Bhuiyas One of the best known of these, Isa Khan,
the founder of the great Mymensingh family knowui as the Diwan
Sahibs of Haibatnagai and Jangalbari, had his head-quarters at Sonai-
gaon, and is said to have ruled over a large kingdom, including the
greater pait of IVIymensingh, till his death in 1598 , he is mentioned
by Ralph Fitch, who visited Sonargaon m 1586, as being the ‘chief of
all the other kings.’ Another important Bhuiya of this period, ruling
over Bhawal in Dacca and the adjoining pargmia of Ran Bhawal in
Mymensingh, was the head of the Ghazi family founded by Palwan
Shah, a military adventurer of the early fourteenth century.

At the time of the settlement of 1582 by Todar Mai, Mymensingh
formed part of the great sarka?‘ Bajuha, which stretched eastw^aid fiom
sarkdr Barbakabad across the Brahmaputra to Sylhet, and southwaid
as fai as the city of Dacca. When the District passed into the hands
of the Company, on the grant of the Dlwani in 1765, it foimed part of
the nidbai which extended fiom the Garo Hills on the north to the
Sundarbans on the south, and from the Tippeia Hills on the east to
Jessore on the west, so called because it w^as governed by a naib 01
deputy of the Nazim. The District of M}men&ingh w’as formed about
1787, and placed undei one Collector with the revenue chaige of
Bhulua, which compnsed the Districts of Tippeia and Noakhali. This
union lasted only till 1790, when Bhulua w'as again sepaiated , and in
1791 the head-quarters of the Collector, which had apparently been
at Dacca, were transferred to their present site in Mymensingh. Some
changes of jurisdiction have since taken place, of w^hich the most
important were in 1866, when the Sirajganj thdna w^as transferred to
Pabna, and the Diwanganj and Atia thCmas weie added from Bogia
and Dacca respectively.

Archaeological remains are meagre. The most important is an
old mud fort coveiing 2 square miles at Garh Jaripa near Sherpur,
probably built more than 500 years ago as an outpost to check the
incursions of the hill tribes.

The population recorded at the Census of 1872 was 2,351,695,
rising to 3,055,237 in 1881, to 3,472,186 in 1891, and to 3,915,068
Population 1901. The climate is generally salubrious, but

the Durgapur thdna at the foot of the Garo
Hills has a reputation for unhealthiness. The majority of the
deaths are asciibed to fever. Cholera and small-pox often occur
in an epidemic form Lepiosy is more common than elsewhere in
Eastern Bengal.

po PULA Troy

153

The chiet statistics of the ('ensus of icjoi are shovsn below • —

Number of

*0 r- U M
dJ CSm

Number of
persons able to
read and
write

Subdi^ ision

Aiea in sq
miles

Villages

i£

§a

rz «i

|g.

(2“

Percentag
\ariatioi]
population
tween
and 190

Mymensingh

t.849

2.367

977.476

529

+ 146

34,207

Netrakona

1,148

1.965

574.771

50*

+ 7*1

18,797

Jamalpur .

1,289

*,747

673.398

522

-H 16 I

20,180

Tangail .

t,o6i

2,030

970,239

914

+ 12-9

45,253

Kishorganj

985

1,661

719,184

730

+ 118

27,949 ,

District total

6,332

9.770

3,915,06s

618

+ 12-8

146,386

There is little distinction between the rural and urban population, as
even in the towns the houses are scattered, and a large proportion of
the inhabitants are engaged in purely agricultural pursuits. Outside
the so-called towns theie is no village with more than 5,000 inhabitants,
and nearly half the population lives in villages with less than 500.
Of the towns, the largest are Jamalpur, Tangail, Kishorganj, and
Nasirabad, the head-quarters. Owing to the sparse population in the
Madhupui jungle and in the hilly north-eastern tract, the District, as
a whole, is less thickly inhabited than other parts of Eastern Bengal
In some parts, however, the population is very dense, and two ihd?ias
of the Tangail subdivision and one m the centre of the District support
more than 1,000 persons per square mile Duiing the ten year^
ending 1901, every thdna in the^District with one exception showed an
increase of more than 8 per cent., the only tract which did not share
in the general advance being the swampy noith-eastern tarai in the
Durgapur thdna^ which supports only 299 persons per square mile.

Mymensingh suffers a slight loss by the ordinary movements of
population, chiefly in the direction of Rangpur, whither some of the
riparian inhabitants have gone to cultivate the accretions formed on
the right bank of the Jamuna On the other hand it gains considerably
from Tippera, whose women are in request as wives and maidservants.
Large numbers of labourers flock in from Saran and the United Pro-
vinces during the winter, and are employed on earthwork, /^//^/-bearing,
and domestic service. The vernacular is a dialect of Bengali known
as the Eastern or MusalmanI dialect , some people of Garo origin talk
Haijong, a corrupt patois of Bengali Muhammadans number 2, 795, 54S,
Hindus 1,088,857, and Animists 28,958 , the first increased by more
than 16 per cent, during the decade ending 1901, and now form 71-4
per cent, of the population.

The majority of the Muhammadans are probably the descendants
of converts from the aboriginal laces whose representatives are still
numerous in the District: namely, the Namasudras (156,000) and the

154 MYMENSINGH niSTRICT

Rajbansis or Koch (52,000) Of the common Hindu castes of
Eastern Bengal the Kaiharttas (131,000) are the most numerous.
Garos and other cognate abonginal races — such as Haijongs, Hadis,
and Dalus — are found along the foot of the Garo Hills. The Garos
are for the most part Animists, but the number so returned is diminish-
ing, owing to the well-known tendency of the aboriginal tribes to adopt
Hinduism as they approach civilization. Four-fifths of the population,
or more than three million persons, are supported by agriculture,
10-2 per cent, by industries, i per cent, by commerce, and 1-3 percent,
by the professions.

The Victoiia Baptist Foreign Mission has been m the District since
1837, and has three branches, at Nasirabad, Tangail, and Birisin
Its work lies mainly among the Garos ; and the Christians enumerated
in the District, who increased from 21 1 in 1891 to 1,291 in 1901, are
mainly Garo converts Considerable attention is paid to education ;
a girls’ orphanage is maintained at Nasirabad, a normal school for
Garo teachers and a girls’ boarding school at Biiisiri, and a numbei
of primary schools

The gieatei poition of the District is a highly cultivated plain
wateied h> the gieat rivers and their offshoots and feeders, but the
Agriculture Madhupui jungle is foi the most pait waste The
noith lies compaiatnely high and is generally abo\e
flood level, but the south is low-er and is subject to annual inundations
and deposits of fertilizing silt. In the neighbourhood of tlie big iiveis
the soil IS a sandy loam, admirably suited foi jute and spring crops.

The principal agricultural statistics foi 1903-4 are showm below’, aieas
being in square miles —

Subdn isioii

Total

Cultuated

Culti\ ablf'
w aste 1

Mymensingh . 1

1,849

' I T24

180

Netrakona . 1

1,148

477

164

ramalpiir . |

1,289

758

125 ,

Tangail

1. 06 1

, 669

9 t '

Kishoiganj .

985

1 730

Total

. 3 .S 2

3 73S

625

Rice forms the staple food-grain of the Distiict ; the wnntei nee
covers 44 per cent of the cultivated area, early rice 15^ pei cent., and
spring rice 5 per cent. The aus or early rice is sowm from March to
April and even Ma}', and is reaped from the middle of May till the
middle of September. The haivest takes place earliest in the west of
the District, and latest in the southern tracts In the east only two
kinds of ai 4 s are cultivated — the jali and the aus proper , in the west
the varieties are much moie numeious, but all of them do best on

AGRICULTURE

155

a dry soil. Winter rice is sown in the late spring and reaped in the
autumn and early winter ^ some of the varieties grow in marshy land,
while the rest grow best in dry lands. The rupd or transplanted winter
crop is grown in moist soil, being sown in June, transplanted a month
or two later, and reaped in November, December, and January, The
long-stemmed rice, which rises with the floods, is common m the deep
swamps. The spring nee, known in the District as bora^ is sown early
in the winter and reaped during the spring months , it is a transplanted
crop, and grows best in low marshy lands.

A fourth of the Bengal jute crop is raised in Mymensingh Distnet,
where the fibre occupies 1,015 square miles, or 27 per cent, of the
cultivated area, it is grown in all parts, but particularly in the rich
alluvial tracts formed by the Brahmaputra between Ghafargaon and
Bhairab Bazar. Oilseeds cover 19 per cent, of the cultivated area,
yieldmg nearly an eighth of the rape and mustard grown in Bengal.
Pulses are extensively grown, and a little wheat and barley are raised
There are considerable plantations of sugar-cane in the Husainshahi
and Joar Hnsainpur par£^anas. The betel- vine is cultivated, and tobacco
IS widely grown. Irrigation is little practised, except for the spring nee
crop. Owing to the regular and copious rainfall, famine is unknown,
while the large export of jute and oilseeds brings large sums of
money into the District, and there is consequently little need for
Government loans.

No attention is given to the feeding or breeding of caltlCy and
the local varieties are weak and undersized. Young bulls are allowed
to run among the herd before they are fit for the plough, and are
the only sires of the young stock. In the cold season cattle aie
grazed on the rice stubble j but during the rams pasturage is very
limited, and the cattle get only what they can pick up on the sides
of marshes, tanks, and roads. In the submerged tracts they are fed
on straw or grass. In the south-east of the District, however, there
are considerable areas of rich pasture, where clarified butter (^Ar)
and the so-called Dacca cheeses are prepared ; in the Madhupur
jungle and Susang hills abundant pasturage is also available Cattle
of a better class, imported from Bihar, are in demand throughout
the District; and buffaloes are also used for agricultural purposes,
especially along the foot of the Garo Hills. Pack-pomes of a small
and weak variety are in common use,

A large number of fairs are held, some of considerable antiquity
and largely attended. At the Saraswati meia held in Nasirabad
in February, and at the Industrial and Agricultural Exhibition recently
instituted at Tangail, agricultural produce and stock are exhibited
for prizes.

In former times the muslins of Kishorganj and Bajitpur were of

VOL, xvni. L

156

MYMENSINGH DISTRICT

consideiable note, and the East India Company had factories at
both places , weaving is still widely practised and supports more
than 30,000 persons. Cloth {eiidi) is woven at

coi^^icSions. Sandhikona in the Netrakona subdivision from wild
silk. Fine sitalpdti mats are made on a large scale
m the east and south-east, where the marshes furnish an abundant
supply of reeds {Phrynmm dichotommn) for the purpose. Brass
and bell-metal ware is manufactured at Islampur in the Jamalpur
subdivision and at Kagmari in Tangail, and the cutlery of Kargaon
and Bajitpur in the Kishorganj subdivision has a local reputation.
Cane boxes, molasses, and mustard oil are also prepared in some
quantities.

Trade is carried on chiefly by rail and river , where there are no
rivers, carts and pack-pomes are used. The chief export is jute, m
i903“4 the amount carried direct to Calcutta exceeded 76,000 tons,
and more than double this quantity was probably baled at Sirajganj
and Narayanganj for export Other exports are pulses, rice, oilseeds,
hides, raw cotton, cheese, ghi^ dried fish, and brass-ware. The principal
imports are salt, kerosene oil, European piece-goods, cotton twist,
molasses, sugar, corrugated iron, coal and coke from Calcutta , tobacco
from Rangpur , raw cotton from the Garo Hills , cotton, betel-nuts, and
chillies from Tippera ; and coco-nuts from the southern Districts. A
large proportion of the trade mth Calcutta is at present earned via
Narayanganj, but the recent extension of the railway to Jagan-
nathganj will possibly in time divert this portion of the traffic to the
more direct route via Goalundo The large trade-centres mark the
lines of water communication , Subarnakhali, lying on the Jamuna
and connected by road with both Jamalpur and Nasirabad, is the
principal emporium in the west of the Distnct. Nasirabad, the head-
quarters town, and Jamalpur are on the banks of the Old Brahmaputra,
on which also lie Saltia, a large cattle market, Datt’s Bazar, and
Bhairab Bazar ; the latter, at the point of the confluence with the
Meghna, is the largest and most important mart in the District.
Katiadi, Karimganj, Kishorganj, and Nllganj are markets whence
large quantities of jute are sent via the Lakhya and Meghna to the
presses at Narayanganj, In the east and south-east are Mohanganj
and Dhuldia, large fish markets , and in the north are Haluaghat, at
the foot of the Garo Hills, where the hillmen bring in their merchandise,
Nalitabari, and Sherpur. Among the Hindus, the Telis and Sahas
are the chief trading castes ; there is also a large community of
Marwaris. Middlemen and brokers are usually Musalmans.

The Dacca-Mymensmgh branch of the Eastern Bengal State Railway
(metre-gauge) enters the District at Kaoraid, whence it runs north
through Nasirabad to Jamalpur, and from thence south-west to join

ADMimSTRA TION

157

the Jarauna at Jagannathganj, having a total length within the Dis-
trict of 87^ miles. The railway has already done much to open out
the country, and the proposed extensions to Tangail and Netrakona
will develop those subdivisions. The railway has seventeen stations
within the Distnct, most of which are connected by feeder roads
with the marts of the interior The most important roads are those
connecting the head-quarters town with Dacca, Subarnakhali on the
Jamuna, Kishorganj via Iswarganj, Durgapur, Tangail via Phulbaria,
Jamalpui, and Netrakona. Including 1,620 miles of village roads,
the District in 1903-4 contained 2,484 miles of road, of which only
45 miles were metalled

Steamers ply on the big rivers which flow along the east and west
of the District The most important of these are the daily services
between Calcutta and Cachar via the Sundarbans, and between
Goalundo and Dibrugarh, both of which stop at several stations within
the District. The usual country boats of Eastern Bengal are em-
ployed for trade, and dug-outs are used on the hill rivers in the north.
There are 171 ferries, of which 5 are Provincial, while the remainder
belong to the District board. The most important are those at
Sambhuganj, Jamalpur, Husainpur, and Piarpur.

For administrative purposes the District is divided into five sub-
divisions, with head-quarters at Nasirabad, Netrakona, Jamalpur,

Tangail, and Kishorganj. They are of unusual . , . .

, r r/r i Administration,

size, having an average area of 1,266 square miles,

and a population of 783,000. Subordinate to the Magistrate-Collector,
the staff at head-quarteis consists of a Joint-Magistrate, seven un-
covenanted Deputy-Magistrate-Collectors, and one Sub-deputy Magis-
trate-Collector. Three of the Deputy-Magistrate-Collectors are em-
ployed exclusively on revenue work, and there is also a Deputy-
Collector in charge of the partition work of both Dacca and
Mymensingh. The other four subdivisions are each in charge of a
Deputy-Magistrate-Collector, the subdivisional officer at Tangail being
assisted by a Deputy-Collector, and at Netrakona by a Sub-Deputy-
Collector.

Civil work is in charge of the District Judge, who is also Sessions
Judge, subordinate to him are an additional District and Sessions
Judge, three Subordinate Judges, one additional Subordinate Judge for
both Fandpur and Mymensingh, and nineteen Munsifs • namely, three
at Mymensingh, and fifteen permanent Munsifs and one temporary
Additional Munsif at Tangail, Netrakona, Kishorganj, Bajitpur,
Iswarganj, Pingna, Jamalpur, and Sherpur. The criminal courts
include those of the Sessions Judge, the District Magistrate, and the
above-mentioned Joint and Deputy-Magistrates. The wealth and the
litigious habits of the people make the criminal and civil work very

iS8 MYMENSINGH DISTRICT

heavy, and disputes about land give rise to numerous and complicated
cases. The District has gained an evil notoriety for kidnapping,
abduction, and rape, and in 1899 it was found necessary to depute
special officers to inquire into such cases.

At Todar Mai’s settlement of 1582 the present District fell within
sarkar Bajuha, which also contained a portion of Dacca District,
and it was subsequently included in the province of Dacca, from
which it was not separated until 1787; the separate revenues
collected by the Muhammadan government cannot therefore be
ascertained. The revenue permanently settled in 1 793 seems to have
amounted to 7*20 lakhs, which in 1903-4 had risen to 7*68 lakhs
(payable by 9,534 estates), mainly by the resumption and assessment m
the first half of the nineteenth century of lands held free of revenue
under invalid titles. In addition, Rs. 70,000 is payable by 178 tem-
porarily settled estates, and Rs. 26,000 by 80 estates held direct by
Government. At the time of the Permanent Settlement only a quarter
of the District was cultivated, and the result is that the share of the
produce of the soil which is now taken as revenue is probably smaller
than in any other part of Bengal It is equivalent to only R. 0-5-8
on each cultivated acre, or ii-8 per cent, of the rental, which itself
by no means represents the real value of the lands to the zaimndars^
as they impose a large premium, vaiying from Rs. 5 to Rs 100 per
acre, at the beginning of each tenancy. A few tenures are peculiar to
the District. The nagani jama taluk, an under-tenure held subject
to a quit-rent, is a relic of the period when tenants were in demand?
having been created by former Rajas of Susang to mduce people to
settle on their estates. A dikhh taluk is an absolute transfer in
consideration of the payment of a lump sum, in addition to rent
fixed in perpetuity ; and a datsudhi ijdra is a usufructuary mort-
gage either for a definite period or until repayment. Rents vary
widely over the District, being highest in pargana Juanshabi, and
lowest in pargana Khaliajun. The rates for homestead land range
from 9 J annas to Rs. 8-9-6 ; rice lands are divided into three classes,
the rates varymg from Rs. 1-14-9 to Rs. 4-5-6 for first-class lands, and
from Rs. 1-3 to Rs. 2-7-6 for those of the third class.

The following table shows the collections of land revenue and of
total revenue (principal heads only), in thousands of rupees : —

1 880-1.

1890-1,

1900-1.

1903-4.

Land revenue

Total revenue.

8,21

19,10

8,26

23,35

8.63

27.78

8,65

27,87

Outside the eight municipalities of NasIrabad, Jamalpur, Sherpur,
Kishorganj, Bajitpur, Muktagacha, Tangail, and Netrakona,

ADMINISTRA TION 159

local affairs are managed by the District board, with subordinate local
boards at each of the subdivisional head-quarteis. In 1903-4 the
income of the District board was Rs. 3,81,000, of which Rs. 1,99,000
was derived from rates \ and the expenditure was Rs. 4,37,000, in-
cluding Rs. 2,63,000 spent on public works and Rs. 87,000 on
education.

There aie 19 police stations or tJidnas and ii outposts. The regular
force subordinate to the District Superintendent in 1903 consisted of 6
inspectors, 77 sub-inspectors, 38 head constables, and 592 constables,
including those employed for patrolling purposes within the municipal
areas. The rural police numbered 7,307 \illage watchmen and 714 head
watchmen. The District jail at Nasirabad has accommodation for 550
prisoners, and the lock-ups at the subdivisional head-quarters for 89.

Education is still very backward, and m 1901 only 3-7 per cent, of
the population (6*9 males and 0*4 females) could read and write. A
considerable advance, however, has been made since 1881. Education
IS most backward in the north of the District, and among the Muham-
madans, only 3*3 per cent of whose males are able to read and write,
compared with 162 per cent, among the Hindus The total number
of pupils under instruction, which was 54,284 m 1882-3 and 51,082 m
1892-3, increased to 65,812 m 1900-1. In 1903-4, 67,266 boys and
5,878 girls were at school, being respectively 22 2 and 2*0 per cent,
of the children of school-going age. The number of educational in-
stitutions, public and private, in that year was 2,618, including 2 Arts
colleges, 133 secondary schools, and 2,255 primary schools. The
expenditure on education was 3 84 lakhs, of which Rs. 26,000 was
met from Provincial funds, Rs. 83,000 from District funds, Rs. 2,000
from municipal funds, and i'98 lakhs from fees. The chief educa-
tional institutions are the Mymensingh Government school and City
College at Nasirabad and the Pramatha Manmatha College at Tangail.
Special institutions include 12 upper primary and 2 lower primary
schools, maintained by the District board for the aboriginal tribes in
the neighbourhood of the Garo Hills and the Madhupur jungle.

In 1903 the District contained 33 dispensaries, of which 14 had
accommodation for 137 in-patients. The cases of 370,000 out-patients
and 2,082 in-patients were treated, and 11,253 operations were
performed The expenditure was Rs. 49,000, of which Rs. 2,000
was met from Government contributions, Rs. 9,000 from Local and
Rs 11,000 fiom municipal funds, and Rs. 27,000 from subscnptions

Vaccination is compulsory only within municipal areas. Elsewhere
there is still some opposition to it, but 154,000 successful vaccina-
tions were performed in 1903-4, representing 25-4 per 1,000 of the
population.

[Sir W. W. Hunter, Statistical Account of Bengal^ vol. v (1875).]

i6o MYMENSINGH SUBDIVISION

Mymensingh Subdivision (MatmansingK) — Head-quarters sub-
division of Mymensingh Distnct, Eastern Bengal and Assam, lying
between 24° 7' and 25° ii' N. and 89° 59' and 90° 49' E., with an
area of 1,849 square miles. A large part of the subdivision consists of
a level open plain, covered with well- cultivated fields and intersected
by numerous small rivers and channels , but the south comprises the
Madhupur jungle, where the country is more elevated and contains
large jungle tiacts. The population in 1901 was 977,476, compared
With 853,020 in 1891 It contains two towns, Nasirabad (population,
14,668), the head-quarters, and Muktagacha {5,888), and 2,367
villages. The density is only 529 persons per square mile, against an
average of 618 for the District, owing to the inclusion of a large poition
of the Madhupur jungle, in parts of which theie aie only 277 persons
per square mile, compared with 1,025 in the Nandail ihdna There
aie important markets at Sambhuganj and Datt’s Bazar.

Mymensingh. — ^Town in Mymensingh District, Eastern Bengal
and Assam. See Nasirabad.

Myohaung Township. —Easternmost township of Akyab District,
Lower Burma, lying between 20® 20' and 20° 50' N and 93° 2'
and 93° 58' E., partly in the valleys of the Kaladan and Lemro, partly
on the slopes of the Arakan Yoma, with an area of 1,329 square miles.
The population was 43,366 in 1891, and 49,978 in 1901. There are
282 villages. In consequence of the scarcity of population in the hill
aieas on the western slope of the Arakan Yoma, the density (37 persons
per square mile) is lower than that of any other township in the
District. The head-quarteis are at Myohaung or ‘old town' (popula-
tion, 2,833), centuries the capital of the ancient kingdom of Arakan
The area cultivated in 1903-4 was 152 S(|uare miles, paying Rs. 2,00,000
land revenue.

Myohaung Village (‘Old town’) — Head-quarters of the township
of the same name in Akyab District, Lower Burma, situated in
20° 35' N and 93° 12' E., on a branch of the Kaladan, about 40 miles
from Akyab and the Bay of Bengal This village was formerly the
capital of the ancient kingdom of Arakan The seat of government
is said to have been moved here from Dwarawadi, farther south in
Sandoway District, about the close of the tenth century, in consequence
of aggressions across the Arakan Yoma from the kingdom of Promc ,
and Myohaung remained the capital till Arakan was finally absorbed
into the kingdom of Ava m the eighteenth century. In the first
Buimese War Myohaung was one of the earliest points of attack. It
was besieged by a British division which had marched by land from
Bengal, and was captured after a stubborn resistance at the end of
March, 1825. On Arakan passing under British rule at the close
of the war, the official head-quarters were not located in the ancient

MYSORE STATE

i6i

capital, but in the more accessible Akyab, at the mouth of the
Kaladan, and Myohaung is now little more than a village In 1901
Its population amounted to 2,833.

The rums of the ancient fort are still m existence, they consist of
three square enclosures, one within the other, surrounded by masonry
walls of very considerable thickness, built of stone and brick set in
cement. The openings in the hills surrounding Myohaung also con-
tain remains of defences. In the village itself the site of the old palace
IS still traceable

Myothit. — Eastern township of Magwe Distiict, Upper Burma,
lying between 20° o' and 20® 19' N. and 95° 13' and 95° 51' E , with
an area of 403 square miles. The eastern poition of the township,
watered by the Yin, lies low, and is extensively cultivated with nee.
The western resembles the Myingun township, in so far as it has a dry
soil on which only millet and sesamum are grown. The population
was 33,994 m 1891, and 42,925 m 1901, distributed in 125 villages.
Myothit (population, 1,638), on the Yin river, about 35 miles due east
of Magwe, is the head-quarters In 1903-4 the area cultivated w^as
107 square miles, and the land revenue and thathameda amounted to
Rs. 6,500.

Mysore State {Maisur) — Native State m Southern India, l>ing
between 11° 36® and 15° 2' N. and 74° 38' and 78° 36' E. It consists
of an undulating table-land, much broken up by
chains of rocky hills and scored by deep lavines. ^spects^

Its form IS that of a triangle, with the apex to the
south, at the point where the Western and Eastern Ghat ranges
converge in the group of the Nilgiris. The geneial elevation rises
from about 2,000 feet above sea-level along the north and south
frontiers to about 3,000 feet at the central water-parting which separates
the basin of the Kistna to the north from that of the Cauvery to the
south. This watershed divides the country into two nearly equal parts,
a little north of lat 13° and as far as long. 77®, where a transverse line
marks the eastern watershed. Several chains of hills, running chiefly
noith and south, subdivide the whole into numerous valleys, widely
differing in shape and size. Isolated peaks of massive rock, called
‘ droogs ’ (from Sanskrit diirga, ‘ hill-fort ’), rear their heads on all sides
to an elevation of 4,000 or 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. The
area of the State is 29,433 square miles The greatest length north
and south is about 230 miles, east and west about 290 miles. It is
bounded by Madras Districts on all sides except on the north-west,
where it is bordered by two Bombay Districts, and towards the south-
west, where Coorg intervenes

The name is that of the capital, Mysore, for Maisur (from viakisha^
Sanskrit for ‘ buffalo,’ reduced in Kanarese to maisa^ and Kanarese

i 62

MYSORE STATE

for ‘town^ or ‘country’), which commemorates the destruction of
Mahishasura, a minotaur or buifalo-headed monster, by Chamundi or
Mahishasura Mardani, the form under which the consort of Siva is
worshipped as the tutelaiy goddess of the ruling family. It is the
Mahisa-mandala of Asoka’s time, and forms the mam part of the
region called throughout Hindu literature Karnata or Karnataka,
a term now wrongly applied to the districts below^ the Eastern Ghats
(see Carnatic).

Mysore is naturally divided into two regions of distinct character
the hill country, called the Malnad, on the west, confined to the tracts
bordering or restmg on the Western Ghats (in Shimoga, Kadui, and
Hassan Districts) , and the moie open country m the east, known as
the Maidan or Bayalshime, comprising the greater part of the State,
where the wide-spreading valleys and plains are occupied by numerous
villages and populous towns. The Malnad is a picturesque land of
mountain and forest, presenting the most diversified and beautiful
scenery. The various parts of the Maidan take their character from
the means of water-supply and the prevailing cultivation. The level
plains of black soil, in the north, grow cotton oi millets ; the tracts
in the south and west, irrigated by channels drawn from rivers, are
covered v^ath plantations of sugai-cane and fields of rice; those
irrigated from tanks have gardens of coco-nut and areca palms,
the wide tracts of red soil, in the east, yield rdgi and other ‘dry
crops ’ , the stony and wide-spreading pasture grounds, in the central
parts of the country, are stretches of coarse grass, relieved by shady
groves of trees.

From the massive group of the Nilgiris, which command the
southern frontier, stretch forth, north-west and north-east respectively,
the Western and Eastern Ghat langes, between which the plateau
of Mysore lies like a wedge. The hills within this table-land, though
rarely in continuous connected chains, arrange themselves into systems
crossing the country longitudinally, in directions more or less parallel
to the Ghat ranges, according to their proximity to one or the other.
They attain their gieatest elevation somewhat north of lat 13'’, where
Mulamagin (the highest point in Mysore), in the Baba Budans, in the
w^est, rises to 6,317 feet, and Nandidroog, in the east, to 4,851 feet.
The best defined of the interior ranges is a belt, from 10 to 20 miles
wide, running between 77° and 77° 30' E., from the Biligiri-Rangans
(4,195 feet), through Savandurga (4,024) and Sivaganga (4,559), north
up to Maddagin (3,935)> on by Nidugal (3,772) to Molakalmuru
and the frontier. In the west a corresponding range, not more than
10 miles in width, runs north along meridian 75° 30' E., from
Ballalrayandurga (4,940 feet) beyond Shikarpur, having on its east
the big loop of the Baba Bcjdans, whose peaks rise to over 6,000 feet.

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

163

Intermediate between these two internal ranges is a chain, with
considerable intervals between its component parts, trending to the
east on the south of the central watershed, and to the west on the
north of it Starting from the Wynaad frontier at Gopalswami Betta
(4,770 feet), It passes by Nagamangala to Chunchangiri (3,221), re-
appeais to the west of Kibbanhalli in the Hagalvadi hills (3,543), and
crosses in a continuous belt through the middle of Chitaldroog District.
Of minor ranges the most important is that of Nandidroog, com-
mencing near tlie hill of that name, with several peaks of nearly equal
height, and passing north by Gudibanda to the Anantapur country.
In the west a similar medial chain, but of lower elevation, runs from
east of the Baba Budans through Sakunagiri (4,653 feet), by the
Ubrani hills and Basavapatna, along the right bank of the Tunga-
bhadra to the frontier, where it meets that ii\er.

The drainage of the country, with a slight exception, finds its way
east to the Bay of Bengal, and is divisible into three great river
systems • that of the Kistna on the north, the Cauvery on the
south, and the Penner, Ponnaiyar, and Palar on the east The
only streams flowing west to the Arabian Sea are those in the north-
^vest, which, uniting in the Sharavati, hurl themselves down the Ghats
in the magnificent Gersoppa Falls ^ and some minor sti earns which
run down to South Kanara. A line drawn east from Ballaliayandurga
to Nandidroog, and thence south to Anekal, with one from Devaraya-
durga north to Pavugada, will indicate approximately the watershed
separating the three mam river basins From the north of this ridge
flow the Tunga and Bhadra, nsmg m the Western Ghats and uniting
in the Tungabhadra, which, after receiving the Hagari or Vedavati,
joins the Kistna beyond the limits of Mysore near Kumool From
the south, the Hemavati (tributary the Yagachi), the Lokapavani,
Shimsha, and Arkavati flow into the Cauvery, which rises m Coorg
and takes a south-easterly course through the State, receiving also
from the south the Lakshmantirtha, the Kabbani or Kapila (tribu-
taries the Nugu and Gundal), and the Honnuhole or Suvarnavati,
From the east of the watershed, in the immediate neighbourhood
of Nandidroog, spring three mam streams . namely, the Uttara
Pinakini or Penner (tributaries the Chitravati and Papaghm), which
runs into the sea at Nellore , the Dakshma Pinakim or Ponnaiyar,
which reaches the sea at Cuddalore , and between them the Palar,
whose mouth is at Sadras.

Owing to either rocky or shallow beds, none of these rivers is
navigable in Mysore ; but timber is floated down the Tunga, the
Bhadra, and the Kabbani at certain seasons Most of the streams
are fordable during the dry months, but during floods traffic over
them IS often suspended until the water subsides. Though useless

MYSORE STATE

164

for navigation, the main streams, especially the Cauvery and its tribu-
taiies, support an extensive system of irrigation by means of channels
drawn from immense dams, called ^anicuts,’ which retain the upper
waters at a high level and permit only the o\erflow to pass down
stream. The channels or halves drawn from them meander over
the country on either bank, following all the sinuosities of the
ground, the total length maintained being upwards of 1,200 miles

There are no natural lakes in Mysore , but the streams which gather
from the hill-sides and fertilize the valleys are embanked at every
favourable point in such a manner as to form series or chains of
reservoirs called tanks (tCanarese, kere)^ the outflow from one at
a higher level supplying the next lower, and so on all down the
course of the stream at a few miles apart. These tanks, varying in
size from small ponds to extensive lakes, are dispersed throughout
the country to the number of neaily 30,000. The largest, Stilekeie,
IS 40 miles m circumference, but the Man Kanave reservoir will
exceed 90 miles. In the north-east are the spring-heads called
talpargi^ extending east of a line from Kortagere to Molakalmuiu.

^ Granites and granitic gneisses, regarded as of Aichaean age, occupy
the greater portion of the State, and traversing these are metamorphic
schists of Pre-Palaeozoic age. There are besides, [a) more recent acid,
basic, and ultra-basic dikes, penetrating both the former systems, and
irrupted probably not later than Lower Palaeozoic times , (b) a deposit
of latente, widely distributed in extensive sheets or oftener in small
isolated patches, forming an almost horizontal capping on the denuded
surfaces of the older rocks , {c) some relatively unimportant alluvial
and sub-aenal deposits.

The schistose rocks which tiaverse the great complex of granite and
granitic gneiss, and are more or less folded down into it, form three
well-marked bands running in a generally north and south direction
Two are of large size, and are known respectively as the Shimoga
and Chiknayakanhalli bands, from their proximity to those towns
The third is the Kolar band, very small in extent, but of the greatest
economic importance. The two first named are southward extensions
of the great bands in Dharwar and Bellary The third is apparently
an extension of a band running south along the Kadin valley in
Cuddapah, but a break of several miles appears to separate the two
near the boundary line between Cuddapah and Mysore.

^ The earliest account of the geology of Mysore was by Captain Newbolcl in
1S44-50 Tsee articles on the * Geology of Southern India.,'y,A\ j 4 . S , vols. vin, ix,xii)
A State Geological department was formed under Mr Bmce Foote m 1894, and i£>
now under Dr W F. Smeeth, on whose notes this section is based.

^ See Bruce Foote’s ‘Geological Features of the South Mahiatta Country,’ ‘Geology
of the Bellary District,' and other papers (^Afemozrs, SiWvey of India^

vols xii, XXV, and Records^ Geographical Survey of India ^ vols, xv, xxi, xxu;.

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

165

The Shimoga band crosses the Tungabhadra near Haiihar, extends
to the southern boundary of Kadur Distnct, and spreads from near
Kadur on the east to the edge of the Western Ghats on the west,
where it forms much of the high Ghat country culminating m the
Kudremukh at an elevation of 6,215 From this point the

western boundary is probably continuous up to Anantapur (Shimoga
District) West of Anantapur the country is covered by a great
spread of laterite, beneath which gneiss is exposed in deep nullahs.

The Chiknayakanhalli band runs thiough the middle of the State
in a north-north-west and south-south-east direction. At the northern
boundary it is divided into two horns by the great granite massif of
Chitaldroog Thence it runs south-south- west as far as Turuvekere
in Tumkur Distnct, with an average width of about 18 miles Here
It suddenly pinches , and the only continuous extension southward
is a narrow band, with an average width of 2 to 3 miles, running
from Baichihalli to the Kangatta hill, north of the Cauvery, opposite
the east end of the island of Sermgapatam. A little to the west
of this narrow band are several small strings of schist near Myasandra,
Nelligere, and Nagamangala, some of which appear to be dikes h
An important schist belt lying throughout the east of this band has
been discovered, the rocks of which resemble those of the Kolar
band. The southern extension towards Sivasamudram is rock con-
taining 50 per cent of iron

The Kolar band lies on the eastern side of the State. It extends
north and south for a distance of 40 miles, with a maximum width
of 4 miles, while three narrow strings extend southwards into North
Arcot and Salem. In general outline the main portion of the band
may be regarded as consisting of a southern portion about 12 miles
long by 4 miles wide, in which the present Kolar Gold Field is situated ;
a northern portion about 12 miles long by 5 miles wide , and a narrow
neck of schist about 10 miles long by r mile wide, connecting these
two parts. The band is composed essentially of hornblendic rocks,
usually schistose, and some well-marked layers of ferruginous quartz
rocks

Granite exists m laige irruptive masses, which have broken up and
penetrated the older gneisses and schists. The gneisses so largely
developed in Mysore are for the most part rocks of granitic com-
position, having a parallel-banded, wavy, or whorl-like structure, due
to the ariangement of the lighter and darker constituents in more
or less distinct bands or streaks They appear to be of igneous
oiigin, rather than metamorphosed sedimentary rocks as suggested
by Mr. Bruce Foote, the banding being due partly to segregation

^ See Mywje Geological Department Records^ vol 111, plate 1; vol ii, p 82;
vol. Ill, p, 1 1 3.

i66

MYSORE STATE

of the more basic constituents, and partly to the contemporaneous
or subsequent veining by pegmatite, aphte, and other forms of granitic
material. The prevailing type is a biotite-gneiss.

The Malnad or eastern face of the Western Ghats is clothed with
magnificent timber and contains the richest flora. The summits of the
mountains are bare of trees, but covered with grasses and herbs —
Anthistena^ Androjiogon, Habenaria^ &c. The valleys descending from
them are filled with woods called sholas^ leaving grass-covered ridges
between. Above 4,500 feet is the evergreen belt; lower down, to
3,000 feet, is a mixed belt, practically continuous ; and finally the
deciduous trees are at the foot and throughout the plains. At extreme
heights occur trees of the Nllgiri flora, but smaller. The South Indian
tree-fern often ascends into the highest sholas^ but rarer ferns abound
in the mixed zone. It is here that coffee (Coffea arabicd)^

{Riper mgrum\ and cardamoms {Elettana cardamoTniiw) are culti-
vated Calophylhim tomentosiimy Hardwickia binata, Bomlax malaha-
ricuin^ Vateria tudica^ Mesua ferrea^ Myristica launfoUa^ M. magnifica^
Lagerstroemia lanceolatay L, Flos Reginae^ Micheha Cha^npaca, Ficus
of many species, and Tectona grandis are some of the prominent trees
in this belt, with the prickly bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea). The
Maidan or open plateau contains numerous species not found in the
upper hill region Bassia laiifolia^ Pterocarpus santalinus^ Tamarindus
tndicus, Feronia elephantum^ Mangifera indica^ Artocarpus integnfolia^
Acacia arabica^ Pongamia glabra^ Santalum alburn^ Phoe7iix sylveslris,
and Cocos nucifera are some of those chaiacteristic of this part. The
hill ranges here and extensive areas in the plains are covered with
small trees, shrubs, and twiners of various species, forming what
IS called scrub jungle. The main roads are lined with avenues of
indigenous trees and the railroads with hedges of the aloe {Agave aineri-
cand). Most villages have a grove (called a ‘ tope ’) of common trees.

Elephants range through the southern forests and are also found in
Shimoga District. A special Khedda department for their capture and
training was formed m 1873, but was m abeyance from the famine of
1876 until 1889, when it was again in operation till 1898. Tigers,
leopards, and bears are numerous Bison are found in the western
and southern forests. Various kinds of antelope and deer, wild hog,
wolf, and wild dog are met with m different parts. Monkeys abound,
and the southern langur frequents the western woods. Otters and
pangolins may also be mentioned Among birds, peafowl are common
in the west , pelicans are also found, with numerous game-birds Jays,
parrots, kingfishers, orioles, and other birds of gay plumage are common.
So are vultures, with many kinds of kites, hawks, and crows, as well
as owls of various kinds. Of reptiles, the hamadryad is met with in
remote and dense forests. Cobras, pythons, the karait^ the rat snake

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

i6^

or dhamin^ the green snake, and others are general in all parts. Iguanas
and chameleons may often be seen, while large lizards called ‘ blood-
suckers ' are universal. Crocodiles abound in most of the western
rivers, where mahseer and other large fish are also to be found. Of
insects, leeches are common in the forests in the wet season, and are
very troublesome. The lac insect propagates on the jdlari tree. Bees
of many kinds are common. A small fly, not bigger than a flea, called
the eye-fly or mango-fly, is quite a pest, especially in the mango season,
and spreads ophthalmia. Mosquitoes are universal, and white ants or
termites insatiable in their ravages. Theie is a great variety of mantis,
some of which simulate straws or leaves.

The year in Mysore may be divided into three seasons : the rainy,
the cold, and the hot. The first commences with the bursting of the
south-west monsoon, generally early in June, and continues, with some
interval in August and September, to the middle of November, closing
with the heavy rams of what is popularly called the north-east monsoon.
It is followed by the cold season, which is generally entirely free from
ram, and lasts till the end of February. The hot season then sets m
during March, and increases in intensity to the end of May, with
occasional relief from thunderstorms. The temperature is most agree-
able during the rainy months, the range of the thermometer at
Bangalore at that season being between 64° and 84°. In the cold
season the mercury falls there as low as 5 in the early morning, and
sometimes rises to 80° during the day. The minimum and maximum
in the shade during the hottest months are about 66° and 91°, or in
extreme seasons 96°.

The annual rainfall ranges from over 360 inches on the crest of the
Western Ghats to as little as 19 inches in the north centre. But these
are extremes that apply only to limited aieas. The excessive rain of
the Malnad rapidly diminishes eastwaids, and from 20 to 37 inches
may be accepted as the general annual average for the greater part of
the State The zone of heavy ram, 60 inches and over, is confined
to the Western Ghat region from Sorab to Manjarabad. From 40 to
60 inches of rain fall between Sorab and Shikarpur, in the Baba
Budans region, and in Heggadadevankote. The zone of 25 to 40
inches extends over all the remainder of the State, except Chitaldroog
Distnct, the north of Tumkur and Kolar Districts, and the extreme
south-east of Mysore District, which have less than 25 inches. The
distribution closely follows that of the forest belts, the heaviest ram
coinciding with the evergreen belt, the next with the deciduous forest,
and the least rainy tracts with the dry belt.

‘ The mean annual relative humidity of the Mysore State is set down by Mr. H. F.
Blanford as 66, that of Malabar and Coorg being 79, and of the Carnatic 67. {Climates
and Weather of India')

i68

MYSORE STATE

The cold-season rams, Decembei to Maich, are insignificant, scanty,
and not much needed for the standing crops. But they are useful in
keeping up the pasture supply. The hot-season lains, in April and
May, sometimes called mango showers, are of the accidental kind,
and give heavy short storms from the east They are very important
for agiiculture, as a copious fail replenishes the tanks, and enables the
cultivators to prepare the land for the ensuing monsoon The south-
west monsoon from June to September is perhaps the most essential
for the country, which requires the steady drizzling rams of this season
to make the soil productive. The north-east monsoon in October and
November is essentially important for filling the tanks, and providing
a store of water that may last over the rainless months

A Meteorological department was formed in 1893, with obsei-
vatories at Bangalore, Mysore, Hassan, and Chitaldroog, and having
under its direction 203 rain-gauge stations. The following table shows
the average temperature and rainfall recorded at Bangalore, Mysore,
and Chitaldroog for a period of years prior to 1901 . —

Station

Height of
Observatory
above sea-
level m
feet

Average temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit) for the
twenty.five years ending 1901 in

January

May

July

November

Mean

Diur-

nal

range

Mean

Diur.

nal

range

Mean

Diur-

nal

range

Mean

Diur-

nal

range

Bangalore*

3,021

68-8

233

804

22 2

742

163

70 8

173

Mysore t

2,518

725

245

80 9

22 6

750

159

73 3

18 4

Chitaldroog J

2»40S

73 5

22 g

82 7

22*9

75*3

13 6

73*5

183

Note. — T he diurnal range is the average difference between the ma'^imum and minimum
temperatures of each day

* Ihe figures for January aie for twenty foui years and the others for twenty-five
t The figures for January are foi eight years and the others for nine
t The figures are for nine years

Average r

ainfall (in inches) for the twenty-five years ending 1901 in

Station

Jan.

"lotal

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

year

Bangalore

0 12

0 20

04s

I 3x

429

297

3 91

502

682

6 q4

3*13

049

3505

Mysore

0 07

0 20

066

2 60

5 57

2 57

2 36

3 12 1

48s

7 81

233

047

32 61

Chitaldroog

0*17

0 04

0*27

147

3 22

2 77

2 70

277

4*05

4 26

2 78

0-33

24-83

The authentic history of Mysore, like that of India m general, begins
after the invasion by Alexander the Great in 327 b c , and has been
History gathered from the inscriptions, several thousands in
number, scattered all over the country h On the
retirement of Alexander, the north of India came under the dominion
of Chandra Gupta, the first of the Maurya emperors, with his capital
^ These have been published by Mr, L. Rice, C.I E., the Mysore Director of Archae-
ology, m a senes called Epigraphia Catna^tca, numbering twelve volumes.

HISTORY

169

at Pataliputra (Patna on the Ganges). According to the Jain tradi
tions, supported by msciiptions and monuments, Chandra Gupta
ended his days at Sravana Belgola in Mysore. In accordance 'with
the dictates of the Jam religion, he gave up his throne m older
to close his life m leligious exercises, and accompanied the great
teacher Bhadrabahu on the migration which he led to the South
from Ujjain, at the beginning of a twelve years' famine which he
had predicted When they reached Sravana Belgola, Bhadrabahu felt
his end approaching, and sent on the body of pilgrims under Visakha
to the Punnata country, the south-western portion of Mysore, he
himself remaining behind, tended by a single disciple, who was no
other than Chandra Gupta. There he died, and Chandra Gupta also,
after surviving his teacher twelve years. Whatever truth there may
be m this story, the discovery by Mr. Rice of edicts of Asoka in the
north-east of the Mysore country has put it beyond doubt that that
portion of the State formed part of the Maurya empiie. Asoka also
sent missionaries, among other places, to Mahisa-mandala (Mysore)
and Vanavasi (Banavasi, north-west of the State). These were probably
just beyond the limits of his empire.

The north of Mysore next came under the rule of the Andhra or
Satavahana dynasty. From the latter name is derived the form
Salivahana, applied to an era, dating from ad. 78, which is in common
use. Their period extends from the second century b. c. to the second
century A. D , and their dominions stretched from east to west over the
entire Deccan Their chief capital was Dhanakataka (Dharanikotta
on the Kistna), but they had a western capital at Paithan on the
Godavari. The kings who ruled m Mysore bore the general name
Satakami.

The Andhras were succeeded by the Kadambas on the north-west,
and by the Pallavas in the north-east The former were of indigenous
origin, their birthplace being Sthanagundur (Talagunda m the Shikarpur
tdluH). Banavasi was their capital, and Shimoga District a part of their
kingdom. The Pallavas had Kanchi (Conjeeveram) as their capital,
and Tundaka or Tonda-mandala (the Madras country east of Mysore)
as their territory, and displaced the Mahavalis or Banas, claiming
descent from Bali or Maha Bali, apparently connected with Maha-
balipur (the Seven Pagodas, on the Madras coast) From the ninth
century the Pallavas are also called Nonambas or Nolambas, and gave
their name to Nonambavadi or Nolambavadi (Chitaldroog District),
the inhabitants of which are represented by the existing Nonabas.

Meanwhile two Ganga princes from the north, of the Ikshvaku and
therefore Solar race, named Dadiga and Madhava, aided by the Jam
pnest Simhanandi, whom they met at Perur (still called Ganga-Perur,
in Cuddapah), established themselves towards the close of the second

170

MYSORE STATE

century throughout the remaining parts of the Mysore country, with
Kuvalala or Kolala (Kolar) as their chief city, and Nandagiri (Nandi-
droog) as their stronghold, founding the Gangavadi kingdom, whose
inhabitants survive in the existing Gangadikaras. The name of this
dynasty, which ruled in Mysore till the opening of the eleventh century,
connects them with the Gangas or Gangaridae, the people of the
Ganges valley, who according to Greek and Roman writers were
the chief subjects of Chandra Gupta. The Gangas also founded
dynasties in Kalinga (Orissa and adjacent parts), and are mentioned
by Pliny as Gangaridae Calingae. It was remorse for the slaughter
and devastation that attended his conquest of Kalinga which led Asoka
to devote himself to peace and religion, as stated in his thirteenth Rock
Edict, The boundanes of Gangavadi are given as north, Marandale
(not identified) ; east, Tonda-nad ; west, the ocean in the direction of
Chera (Cochin and Travancore) j south, Kongu (Salem and Coim-
batore). All the kings had the cognomen Kongunivarma. The third
king removed his capital to Talakad on the Cauvery The seventh
king, Durvinlta, made extensive conquests m the south and east,
capturing some of the Pallava possessions. In the middle of the
eighth century the Ganga dominion was in a high state of prosperity,
and was designated the Srlrajya or ‘fortunate kingdom.’ The king
Srlpurusha subdued the Pallavas and took from them the title of
Permmanadi, always applied to the subsequent Ganga kings. He
fixed the royal residence at Manyapura (Manne in Bangalore District).

To revert to the north-west of the country. In the fifth century
the Cbalukyas, claiming to come from Ajodhya, appeared in the
Deccan and overcame the Rashtrakutas, but were stopped by the
Pallavas. In the sixth century the Chalukya king Pulikesin wrested
Vatapi (Badami in Bijapur District) from the Pallavas and made it his
capital. His son subdued the Mauryas ruling in the Konkan, and
the Kadambas of Banavasi. Another son conquered the Kalachuris
also. Pulikesin II, in the seventh century, came into contact with
the Gangas. About 617 the Cbalukyas separated into two branches.
The Eastern Cbalukyas made Vengi (in Kistna District), taken from
the Pallavas, and subsequently Rajahmundry, their capital, while the
Western Cbalukyas contmued to rule from Vatapi, and eventually from
Kaly^ (in the Nizam’s Domimons). These are styled the Satyasraya
family, from a name of Pulikesin, the first king of this branch, who
was a great conqueror. His chief victory was over Harshavardhana,
king of Kanauj, the most powerful monarch m Northern India. By
this conquest he gained the title of Paramesvara. Both kings are
described by the Chinese pilgnm Hiuen Tsiang. Pulikesin exchanged
presents with Khtisru II of Persia. After his death the Pallavas
inflicted severe losses on the Western Cbalukyas, but Vikramaditya

HISTORY

171

restored their power. He subdued the Pandya, Chola, Kerala, and
Kalabhra kings, and captured Kanchi, forcing the Pallava king, who
had never bowed to any man, to place his crown at his feet. The
three next kings followed up these victories, until all the powers from
the Guptas on the Ganges to the southernmost rulers of Ceylon had
submitted to them.

But the Rashtrakutas, under their kings Dantidurga and Krishna or
Kannara, now succeeded in freeing themselves, and for 200 years from
the middle of the eighth century became supreme. They were also
called Rattas, and their territory Rattavadi. Their capital, at fiist
Mayurakhandi (Morkhand in Nasik District), was early in the ninth
century at Manyakheta (Malkhed in the Nizam’s Dominions). They
commonly bore the title Vallabha, taken from the Chalukyas, which,
in its Prakrit form Ballaha, led to their being called Balliaras by Arab
tiavellers of the tenth century. At the end of the eighth century
Dhruva or Dharavarsha made the Pallava king pay tribute, and
defeated and impiisoned the king of the Gangas, who had never been
conquered before. During the mtenegnum thus caused, Rashtrakuta
viceroys governed the Ganga territories, of whom inscriptions tell us
of Kambharasa, sui named Ranavaloka, apparently a son of Dhara-
varsha, and in 813 Chaki Raja. Eventually the Rashtiaktita king
Govinda or Prabhutavarsha released the Ganga king, probably Siva-
mara, and leplaced him on the throne. Niipatunga or Amoghavaisha
had a very long reign during the ninth century, and has left writings in
the Kanarese language which show his great interest in the people and
country of Karnataka h His successor was engaged m constant wars
with the Eastern Chalukyas. These were subdued in the middle of
the tenth century by the Cholas, who thus came into collision with the
Rashtrakutas, then in intimate alliance with the Gangas. Butuga of
the latter family had married a Rashtrakuta princess, and helped his
brother-m-law Kannara or Akalavarsha to secure the throne. He now
rendered him a great service by slaying Rajaditya, the Chola king, at
Takkola (near Arkonam). This put a stop to the Chola invasion j
and Butuga was rewarded with the north-western districts of Mysore,
in addition to those in the Bombay country which formed the dowry
of his bride In 973 Taila restored the supremacy of the Western
Chalukyas, and Indra, the last of the Rashtrakutas, died at Sravana
Belgola in 982.

From the time of Rachamalla, about 820, the Gangas had again
prospered, and all the kings to the end take the title Satyavakya
in addition to Permmanadi. Rachamalla was followed by Nltimarga,
and he by Satyavakya and Ereyappa. Then came Butuga, already
mentioned. His successor, Marasimha, utterly destroyed the Nolambas.

^ A small Sanskrit work by him on morality was translated into Tibetan.

VOL. XVIII. M

172

MYSORE STATE

With Rakkasa Ganga and a Nitimarga or Ganga Raja the dynasty
came to an end, in the manner related below.

The revival of the Western Chalukya power continued for 200 years,
during the first half of which they were engaged in continual wars
with the Cholas The latter had from 972 completely subjugated
the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, whose kingdom was eventually made
an apanage of the Chola empire, being ruled by Chola princes as
viceroys At the same time a Chola princess was married to the
Kalinga Ganga king still farther north. In 997 the Cholas under
Rajaraja had invaded Mysore in the east In 1004 they reappeared
in overwhelmmg force, undei his son Rajendra Chola, took Talakad,
and subverted the Ganga sovereignty, capturing all the south and
east of the countiy, up to a line from about Arkalgud through
Sermgapatam and Nelamangala to Nidugal.

The remaining portions of Mysore, that is, the north and west, were
subject to the Western Chalukyas, of whom the most celebrated was
Vikramaditya, the son of a Ganga mother, who ruled from 1076 to
1126. Their empire is generally called Kuntala, of which the
Banavase-nad, or Shimoga District, was a principal province. The
capital of this was Balligave, now Belgami in the Shikarpur tdluk^
which contained splendid temples, dedicated to Jina, Buddha, Vishnu,
Siva, and Brahma, Famous scholars were at the head of its five
maths^ where, as in the mediaeval monasteries of Europe, food and
medicine were dispensed to all comers.

The Chalukyas were supplanted in 1155 by the Kalachuris in the
person of Bijjala, who had been their minister and general. During
his time took place the Saiva revival which resulted in the establish-
ment of the Lingayat creed, still the popular religion of the Kanarese-
speaking countries. The Kalachuri power lasted but a short time,
till about 1183,

The local dynasty which rose to dominion m Mysore on the over-
throw of the Gangas was that of the Poysalas or Hoysalas, by origin
a line of chiefs in the Western Ghats Their birthplace was Sosevur
or Sasikapura (now Angadi in Kadur District). The founder was Sala,
who at the exclamation foy Sala (strike, Sala’) by a Jain priest slew
the tiger that was threatening him, and thence took the name Poysala
(of which Hoysala is the modern form), the priest aiding him in estab-
lishing a kingdom. The Hoysalas claimed to be Yadavas and therefore
of the Lunar race. At first they recognized the Western Chalukyas
as overlords. Their capital was fixed at Dorasamudra (now Halebid
in Hassan District). In the time of Vinayaditya, who ruled to the
end of the eleventh century, the kingdom included Konkana, Alva-
kheda (South Kanara), BayalnM (Wynaad), Talakad (the south of
Mysore District), and Savimale (somewhere north towards the Kistna).

HISTORY

173

His son Ereyanga was a great general under the Chalukyas, and among
other exploits burnt Dhar, the Malava capital. He died before hib
father, and the throne passed to his sons. Of these, Bitti Deva,
who ruled fiom 1104 to 1141, was the most distinguished. Under
the influence of the reformer Ramanuja, who had taken refuge in his
kingdom from Chola persecution, he exchanged the Jain faith for
that of Vishnu, and took the name of Vishnuvardhana. He also
entered upon an extensive range of conquests, an early achievement
being the capture of TalakM about 1116. This was followed by
the expulsion from Mysore of the Cholas. The boundaries of the
kingdom in his reign w^ere extended to the lower ghat of Nangali
(Kolar District) on the east, Kongu, Cheram, and Anaimalia (Salem
and Coimbatore) on the south, the Baikanur ghat road of Konkana
on the west \ and Savimale on the north. Rameswaram is also
given as a boundary on the south His own country he gave to the
Brahmans, while be ruled over countries won by his sword. He
died at Bankapur (in Dharwar District) and was succeeded by his
son Narasimha. His grandson, Vira Ballala, who came to the throne
m 1173, gained such renown that the kings of this family are some-
times called the Ballalas. He won important victories to the north
over the Kalachuris and the Seunas (or Yadavas of Deogiri), especially
one at Soratur, and carried the Hoysala kingdom up to and beyond
the Peddore or Kistna, taking up his residence at Lokkigundi (Lak-
kundi in Dharwar). He reduced all the hill forts about the Tunga-
bhadra, and, capturing Uchchangi, which the Cholas, after besieging
for twelve years, had abandoned as hopeless, he brought into subjec-
tion the Pandyas of that place. His son, Narasimha II, repulsed the
Seunas in the north-west, but was mostly engaged in wars to the
south-east, where he overthrew the Pandya, subdued the Kadava
(or Pallava) and Magara kings, and rescued the Chola leader, reseating
him on his throne. The Seunas took this opportunity to pi ess south-
wards, and succeeded m settling in parts of the north-west. Som-
eswara next came to the throne m 1233; and in his time the Seunas
attempted to advance as far as Dorasamudra, the capital, but were
driven back, though their general, Saluva Tikkama, claimed some
success. The Hoysala king, however, went to live in the Chola
country, at Kannanur or Vikramapura (near Srirangam and Tnchi-
nopoly). On his death in 1254 a partition was made of the Hoysala
territories, the capital and the ancestral Kannada kingdom going to
his son Narasimha III, while the Tamil provinces and Kolar Distnct
were given to another son, Ramanatha. The Seunas, under their
king Mahadeva, were again put to flight by Narasimha. The kmgdom
was then once more united under Ballala III, who came to the throne
in 1291 During his reign the Musalmans invaded the country in

M 2

174 MYSORE STATE

1310, under Kafur, the general of Ala-ud-din of the Khilji or second
Pathan dynasty The king was defeated and taken prisoner Dora-
samudra was sacked, and the enemy returned to Delhi literally laden
with gold. The king’s son, earned off as a hostage, was restored
in 1313 A later expedition in 1326, sent by Muhammad III of the
house of Tughlak, completely demolished the capital. The king
seems to have retired to Tondanur (Tonnur, noith of Senngapatam),
but eventually went to live at Unnamale (Tiiuvannamalai or Tri-
nomalee, in South Arcot) He returned, however, to a place in
Mysore called Virupaksha-pattana (perhaps Hosdurga), and died fight-
ing against the Turakas or Musalmans at Beribi in 1342 A son
Virupaksha Ballala was crowned in 1343, but the Hoysala power
was at an end.

The last great Hindu empire of the south was established in 1336
at Vijayanagar on the Tungabhadra. Two princes of the Yadava
line and Lunar race, named Hakka and Bukka, probably subordinates
of the Hoysalas, were aided in founding a new state by Madhava
or Vidyaranja, head of the 7 iiath of Sankaracharya, the great re-
former of the eighth century, at Sringen in Kadur District Hakka
took the name of Hanhara, in which Vishnu and Siva are combined,
but the tutelary deity of the line was VirQpaksha. Hanhara was the
first king, and was succeeded by Bukka, whose son Hanhara II
followed. They speedily became paramount throughout the South,
but their extension northwards was checked by the foundation in
1347 of the Bahmani kingdom, which was Musalman. Altogether
eight kings of the first or Sangama dynasty ruled till 1479 Among
them more than one of the name of Deva Raya was celebrated.
Indeed the first Deva Raya, son of Harihara II, takes the title
Pratapa, and claims to be the progenitor of a Pratapa dynasty.
The most prominent feature of this period was the sanguinary wars
between the Vijayanagar kings and the Bahmani Sultans of Gulbarga,
the description of which fills the pages of Finshta. The wealth and
magnificence of the capital are attested by the accounts of the Italian
traveller Nicolo de’ Conti in 1421, and of Abd-ur-razzak, Persian envoy
to Deva Raya in 1443 The later kings were less powerful , and
Muhammad Shah II was overrunning the whole territory, when he
was opposed by Narasimha, a chief of the Saluva family, related
in some way to the king, whose possessions extended over Telingana
and the east of Mysore. Though the Sultan captured the strong
fort of Malur (in Kolar District) and some other places, and plundered
Kanchi, Narasimha staved off the danger, but usurped the throne
himself. His son, however, was in turn ousted by his general Nara-
singa, who belonged to the Yadava race, and was descended from
a line of Tuluva kings He crossed the Cauvery, it is said, when

HISTORY

175

in full flood, and seizing his enemy alive, took possession of Seringa-
patam The conquest of the whole of the South followed, and he
became the founder of the Naiasinga dynasty. About the same
period the Bahmam kingdom was broken up by revolts, and fi^e
Musalman states took its place in the Deccan. That which had
most to do with Mysore was Bijapur.

Narasinga’s sons — Narasimha, Krishna Raya, and Achyuta Raya —
in turn succeeded to the Vijayanagar throne. Krishna Raya was
one of the most powerful and distinguished of its monarchs. He
inflicted a severe defeat upon the Muhammadans about 1520, in
consequence of which a good understanding prevailed between the
courts of Vijayanagar and Bijapur for a considerable time. One
of the earliest expeditions of the reign was against Ganga Raja, the
chief of Ummattur (in Mysore District), who had rebelled and claimed
Penukonda, perhaps as being a Ganga. His main stronghold was
on the island of Sivasamudram, at the Falls of the Cauvery, and
parts of Bangalore District were known as the Sivasamudram country.
Krishna Raya captured his fort at the Falls, and also took Seringa-
patam He extended the limits of the empire until they reached
to Cuttack on the east, and to Goa on the west He was a great
patron of Sanskrit and Telugu literature. Interesting accounts of the
capital m his reign have been left by Duarte Barbosa. On the death
of Achyuta his infant son succeeded, but died early. His nephew
Sadasiva Raya was then placed on the throne by the great ministei
Rama Raja, who was his biother-in-law, and by the council. But
Rama Raja himself wielded the chief power of the State In spite
of great ability, his arrogance was such that the Musalman Slates
of Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, and Bldar were provoked to
combine in an attack on Vijayanagar as then common enemy. In
the battle of Talikota near Raichtir, on January 23, 1565, Rama
Raja was slain, on which the Hindu army fled panic-stncken, and
the royal family escaped to Penukonda. The victorious Muham-
madans marched to Vijayanagar, which they utterly sacked and
destroyed. Cesare de’ Fedeiici describes the desolation which ensued,

Rama Raja’s brother, Tirumala Raja, removed the capital to Penu
konda, and his son succeeded to the throne left vacant by Sadasiva
Raya, thus establishing the Rama Raja dynasty. In 1577 Penukonda
was bravely defended against the Musalmans by Jagadeva Raya, who
was the king’s father-in-law, and became chief of Channapatna (Banga-
lore District). In 1585 the capital was again moved, now to Chandra-
giri. But the empire was breaking up. In 1610 the Mysore king
seized Seringapatam, and other feudatories began to throw off their
allegiance. It was in 1639 that the English obtained from Sri Ranga
Raya the settlement of Madras. Six years latei, Chandragiri and

176

MYSORE STATE

Chingleput, another nominal capital, being taken by the forces of
Golconda, the king fled to the protection of Sivappa Naik of Bednur
(Shimoga Distnct), who installed him at Sakkarepatna and neigh-
bouring places, and attempted to besiege Seringapatam under pre-
tence of restoring him. But with him the empire ended. A member
of the family established himself at Anegundi, on the opposite side
of the river to Vijayanagar; and his line continued till 1776, when
Tipu Sultan oveiran the whole country, dispossessed the reigning chief,
and burnt Anegundi. Some suivivors of the family are still there

During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the Vijayanagar kings
had bestowed on, or confirmed to, vassal chiefs, bearing various titles,
sundry tracts m Mysore, on the condition of paying tribute and render-
ing military service. Those in the north were controlled direct from
the capital. The southern chiefs were under a viceroy, termed the
Sri Ranga Rayal, at Senngapatam. After the disaster of Tahkota,
although a nominal allegiance continued to be paid to the viceroy, such
of the chiefs as had the power gradually declared their independence.
Among these were the Naiks of Keladi or Bednur, Basavapatna, and
Chitaldroog in the north , the Naiks of Belur in the west \ the Naiks
of Hagai vadi, and the Gaudas of Yelahanka and Ballapur, in the
centre, the Gauda of Sugatur in the eastj the Changalvas, and the
Wodeyars of Mysore, Kalale, Ummattur, and others, in the south.
These pohgdrs as they were called, will be noticed in connexion wdth
their respective Districts

Bijapur and Golconda entered into a mutual agreement in 1573
to extend their conquests in such directions as not to interfere with
one another. The Bijapur line was to the south. Adoni having been
captured, and the West Coast regions overrun, an attempt was made in
1577 on Penukonda. But it found a gallant defender, as before stated,
in Jagadeva Raya, who forced the Bijapur army to retire. For this
brilliant service, his territory of Baramahal was extended across Mysore
to the Western Ghats, and he made Channapatna his capital. At about
the same period Tamme Gauda of Sugatur rendered some important
service, for which he received the title of Chikka Raya, with a grant of
territory from Hoskote in the west to Punganur in the east Mean-
while the Wodeyars of Mysore had been absorbing all the lesser States
to their south, till in 1610 they secured Seringapatam, ousting the
effete viceroy. In 1613 they took Ummattur, in 1630 Channapatna,
and in i6/|4 uprooted the Changalvas in Piriyapatna, thus becoming
the dominant power in the south of the country.

But in the north and east an invasion by Bijapur in 1636 was success-
ful. After the appointment of Aurangzeb as viceroy of the Deccan,
Bijapur became tributary to Delhi. Its arms were then directed to the
^ pdlayagara, the holder of z.palaya or baronial estate

HISTORY

177

south, under Randullah Khan, accompanied by ShahjT, father of the
famous Sivajl, as second in command, with the promise of a jdglr m the
teiritones to be conquered. The Bednur kingdom was now overrun,
and the chief besieged in Kavaledurga, but he bought off the enemy.
An attempt on Senngapatam was repulsed with great slaughter by
Kanthirava, the Mysoie Raja. The invaders then captured Bangalore
and Kolar District in 1639, and, descending the Ghats, took Vellore and
Gingee On returning to the table-land, Dod-Ballapur, Sira, and the
south of Chitaldroog District fell into their hands by 1644. A province
named Camatic-Bijapur-Balaghat was now formed, including Kolar,
Hoskote, Bangalore, and Sira. This was bestowed as a jagir on
Shahji, who w^as also governor of the conquered territory below the
Ghats, called Carnatic-Bijapur-Payanghat. Under him a large Maratha
element was introduced into Mysore. ShahjI died in 1664, and his
son Venkoji or Ekoji, who lived at Tanjoie, inhented his father’s
possessions. But Sivaji, the only surviving son of the first marriage,
resolved to claim a half-share To enforce this he overran the Carnatic
provinces above and below the Ghats in 1677, and in the end Venkoji
was mduced to agree to a partition, by which he retained Tanjore.

In 1684 the Mughal arms, under Aurangzeb, were once more directed
to the Deccan for the purpose of crushing the Marathas, and subjugating
the Muhammadan States of Bijapur and Golconda Bijapur was taken
in 1686, Golconda in 1687. Flying columns were sent out after each
of these captures to secure the dependent districts south of the Tunga-
bhadra. A new province was thus formed in 1687, with Sira (Tumkur
District) as the capital. It was composed of the seven parganas of
Basavapatna, Budihal, Sira, Penukonda, Dod-Ballapur, Hoskote, and
Kolar , and it had, as tributary States, Harpanahalli, Kondarpi,
Anegundi, Bednur, Chitaldroog, and Mysore. Bangalore was sold to
the Raja of Mysore for 3 lakhs of rupees, the sum he had agreed to
give for it to Venkoji, who finding it too far off to control had offered it
for sale. Kasim Khan, with the designation of Faujdar Diwan, was the
first governor of this province of Sira. It continued a Mughal pos-
session till 1757.

We must now retrace our steps, to relate the history of the Mysore
family. Their origin is ascribed to two Kshattriya princes of the
Yadava race, named Vijaya and Krishna, who came to the South from
Dwarka in Kathiawar in 1399, and, being pleased with the country,
took up their abode in Mahishur or Mysore, the chief town. Here
they heard that the Wodeyar or chief of Hadmadu, a few miles to
the south-east, had wandered away, being out of his mind, and that
the neighbouring chief of Karugahalh, who was of infeiior caste, taking
advantage of the defenceless condition of the family, had demanded
the only daughter of the house in marriage. To this a consent had

MYSORE STATE

178

been given under compulsion, and arrangements unwillingly made
for the ceremony The two brothers \owed to espouse the cause of
the distressed maiden, and, having secreted themselves with some
followers, fell upon the chief and his retinue while seated at the
banquet and slew him. Marching at once on Karugahalli, they sui-
prised it and returned in triumph to Hadinadu, w^heie the girl be-
came the willing biide of Vijaya, who took the title of Odeyar 01
Wodeyar, and assumed the government of Hadinadu and Kaiugahalh,
with a profession of the leligion of the Jangama or Lingayats. The
fourth king, Chama Raja III, who reigned from 1513 to 1552, made a
paitition of his dominions between his three sons. To Chama Raja
IV, surnamed Bol or ‘bald/ he gave Mysoie, and, no male heir
suivivmg to either of the other brothers, the succession was con-
tinued m the junioi or Mysore branch.

It was in the time of Chama Raj'a IV that the fatal disaster of Tali-
kota befell the Vijayanagar empire, and the authority of its viceroy at
Senngapatam was in consequence impaired Accordingly Chama Raja
evaded payment of tribute, while the imbecile viceroy attempted in
vain to arrest him When, after the short reign of his elder brother,
Raja Wodeyar was raised to the throne by the elders, the fortunes
of the royal family became established. He contrived m 1610 to gam
possession of Senngapatam, ousting the aged viceroy Tirumala Raja,
who retired to Talakad. In 1613 Raja Wodeyar subdued Ummattur
and annexed its possessions to Mysore. He also made some ac-
quisitions northwards from Jagadeva Raya’s teiritories. His policy
was to suppress the Wodeyars or local chiefs and to conciliate the
ryots He was followed by his grandson Chama Raja VI, who pursued
the same policy, and by the capture in 1630 of Channapatna absorbed
into Mysore all the possessions of Jagadeva Raya.

Of the succeeding kings, Kanthirava Narasa Raj*a was distinguished.
The year after his accession in 1638 he had to defend Senngapatam
against the Bijapur forces, and, as already related, drove them off with
gieat slaughter. He extended the kingdom on all sides, taking Satya-
mangalam and other places from the Naik of Madura southwards ,
overthrowing the Changalvas in the west, thus gaining Piriyapatna and
Arkalgud , capturing Hosur (now in Salem) to the noith ; and inflicting
a severe defeat at Yelahanka on Kempe Gauda of Magadi, who was
forced to pay a heavy contiibution. He added to and strengthened the
fortifications of Senngapatam, assumed more of royal state at his court,
and was the first to establish a mint, where were coined the Kanthiraya
(Canteroy) /12ms and fanams named after him, which continued to be
the current national money of Mysore until the Muhammadan usurpa-
tion. He died without issue, and of two claimants to the throne,
Dodda Deva Raja, grandson of Bol Chama Raja, was selected. It was

HISTORY

179

during his reign that Sri Ranga Raya, the last representative of
Vijayanagar, fled for refuge to Bednur. Sivappa Naik, the head of
that State, on the plea of restoring the royal line, appealed befoie
Seringapatani with a large force. But he was compelled to retreat,
and the Mysore armies overran the tracts in the west which he had
conferred on Sri Ranga Raya. The Naik of Madura now invaded
Mysore, but was also forced to letire, while Mysore troops, capturing
Erode and Dharapuram, levied contributions from Trichinopoly and
other chief places. Dodda Deva was a great friend of the Brahmans,
and profuse in his donations to them. He died at Chiknayakanhalli,
then the northern boundary of the State, the southern being Dhara-
puram in Coimbatore The western and eastern boundaries were
Sakkaiepatna and Salem. Chikka Deva Raja, pieviously passed over,
now came to the throne, and pioved to be one of the most distinguished
of his line When a youth at Yelandur he had formed a friendship with
a Jain pandit^ who was now made the minister, though obnoxious on
account of his faith. A regular postal system was for the first time estab-
lished, which was also utilized for detective purposes Maddagiri and
other places to the north weie conquered, making Mysore conterminous
with Carnatic-Bijapur-Balaghat, then disorganized by the raids of Sivaji
For ten years following a \ariety of vexatious petty taxes were imposed,
111 order to increase the revenue without incurring the odium of en-
hancing the fixed land tax. Great discontent ensued, fanned by the
Jangama piiests. The ryots lefused to till the land, and, desei ting their
villages, assembled as if to emigrate. The king resolved upon a
treacherous massacre of the Jangama priests, and this sanguinary
measure stopped all opposition to the new financial system, but the
minister was assassinated as being the instigator of the innovations With
his dying breath he recommended as his successoi a Brahman named
Tirumalarya, one of the most learned and eminent ministers of Mysore
This brings us to 1687, when the Mughals, having captured Bijapur,
were forming the province of Sha. VenkojI had agreed, as before
1 elated, to sell Bangalore to the Mysoie Raja foi 3 lakhs of rupees
But Kasim Khan, the Mughal general, fiist seized it and then earned
out the bargain, pocketing the money himself. Through him the
Raja assiduously cultivated an alliance with Aurangzeb, and meanwhile
subdued such parts of the country as would not interfere with the
Mughal operations. A great part of Baramahal and Salem below
the Ghats was thus added to Mysoie, and by 1694 all the west up to
the Baba Budan mountains In 1696 the tenitory of the Naik of
Madura was invaded and Trichinopoly besieged. In the absence
of the mam army, a Maratha force marching to the relief of Gingee
suddenly appeared before Senngapatam, attracted by the hope of
plunder. The Mysore army, recalled by express, returned by forced

i8o MYSORE STATE

marches, and by a skilful stratagem totally defeated the enemy, who
lost everything. Kasim Khan now died ^ and the king, in order to
establish fresh interest at court and obtain if possible recognition of
his new conquests, sent an embassy to the emperor at Ahmadnagar,
which returned in 1700 with a new signet, bearing the title Jug Deo
Raj, and permission to sit on an ivory throne. The king now formed
the administration into eighteen departments, in imitation of what the
envoys had seen at the Mughal court. He died in 1704, at the age
of seventy-six, having accumulated a large treasure, and, notwithstanding
the troublous times, established a secure and prosperous State, extend-
ing from Palni and Anaimalai in the south to Midagesi in the north,
and from Carnatic Garh in Baramahal in the east to Coorg and Balam
in the west.

In the reign of Dodda Krishna Raja (17 13-31) the Nawab of Sira’s
jurisdiction was lestricted to the Balaghat, a separate Nawab of Arcot
being appointed to the Payanghat. The ascendancy of the throne in
Mysore began to decline, and all power fell into the hands of the
ministers, Devaraj and Nanjaraj k At frequent intervals armies sent
by the rival Nawabs or by the Subahdar of the Deccan appeared,
claimmg contributions, and, if they could not be driven away, had to
be bought off. When at length the Marathas appeared m 1757
under BalajI Rao, so impoverished had the State become that several
taluks were pledged to them as security to induce them to retire.

Meanwhile, at the siege in 1749 of Devanhalli, then a frontier
fortress, a volunteer horseman had come to notice who was destined
before long to gam the supreme power m the State and to play no
mean part in the history of India. This was Haidar All, whose
courage in the field induced Nanjaraj to give him a command. He
managed to increase his force; and amid the struggles between rival
candidates for the Nawabship of the Carnatic, supported by the
English and French respectively, he secured for himself valuable
booty. His services before Trichmopoly led to his appointment as
Faujdar of Dmdigul (Madura District), where he added to his foice
and enriched himself by wholesale plunder. The army at the capital
having become mutinous on account of their pay being in arrears,
Haidar was sent for to settle the disputes, which he did with un-
scrupulous ability. The fort and district of Bangalore were now given
to him as a jdgzr. On his advice the Marathas had been expelled
from the pledged taluks when the rains set in and farther invasion was
at the time impossible. They appeared again in 1759 in gieat force

^ There were two of this name The first Nanjaraj was a cousin of Devaraj, who
on his deathbed, in 1740? refunded 8 lakhs of rupees, estimated as the amount he had
improperly acquired. He was succeeded by the second Nanjaraj, a younger hi other
of Devaraj.

HISTORY

i8i

under Gopal Hari. Haidar was appointed to the chief command to
oppose them, and by his skill rescued Bangalore and Channapatna,
whereupon the Marathas, finding themselves outdone, agreed to leave
the country on payment of a certain sum m discharge of all claims.
Returning in tiiumph to Sermgapatam, he was received in a splendid
darhdr^ where Nanjaraj rose up to embrace him, and he was saluted
with the title Fateh Haidar Bahadur. The pay of the troops before
long again fell into arrears, and again Haidar had to satisfy them, for
which purpose more than half the country was placed in his hands,
while Nanjaraj was forcibly retired.

In 1760 the French commander Count de Lally, cooped up by the
English in Pondicherry, sought the aid of Haidar, and a treaty was
made When his troops had gone away on this expedition, Khande
Rao, his coadjutor in all his schemes hitherto, turned against him and
induced the Raja’s paity to try to get nd of him. A cannonade was
suddenly opened on his camp near Sermgapatam, and he was forced
to flee for his life Bangalore was gained just in time Collecting
his scattered forces, assisted by some French, he marched against
Khande Rao, by w^hom he was defeated near Nanjangud. All now
seemed lost, but he repaired secretly to Nanjaraj and persuaded him
to resume his authority. Armed with this, he contiived a stratagem
by which Khande Rao was completely deceived, and fled under the
impression that he was betrayed, leaving all his forces to go over to
Haidar The latter reconquered the southern districts and returned
to Sermgapatam at the head of a great army, with which, again by
stratagem, he got possession of the island. The Raja was now at his
mercy; Khande Rao was given up, and Haidar’s usurpation was
inevitable, though he always maintained a royal occupant on the
throne

Haidar soon subdued all the petty States to the east and north of
the country, and marched against Bednur, which was taken in
March, 1763, and a booty valued at twelve millions sterling fell
into his hands, together with the countries on the West Coast. This
conquest was always spoken of by him as the foundation of his
subsequent greatness He conceived the idea of making a new
capital for himself here, and gave it the name of Haidarnagar (now
Nagar). He established a mint, from which coins in his own name
were issued, and formed a dockyard and naval arsenal on the coast.
But he had to reckon with the Marathas and the Nizam, who laid
claim to some of the countries he had conquered. He was defeated
by the former at Rattihalli, but contrived by negotiations to retrieve
his fortunes with both powers. When, before long, they again planned
a joint invasion of Mysore, he bought off the Marathas and induced
the Nizam to join with himself against the British. These he attacked

i 82

MYSORE STATE

in 1767, but they forced the Nizam to bieak off the alliance, and in
1769 peace was concluded with Haidar. It is impossible here to
follow in detail all the operations and varying fortunes of the wars
which Haidar, supported by the French, waged against the British
His last invasion of the British teriitories was in July, 1780, and while
the war was in progress he died in camp near Arcot on December 7,
1782, at the age of sixty. An unlettered adventurer, he had raised
himself to a throne and founded a kingdom.

His son and successor, Tipu, had not the ability of his father , his
mind was warped by a fanatical bigotry, and he bore the most
inveterate hatred against the British. The war with them was pro-
longed until 1784, when a treaty of peace was concluded, followed by
a successful war with the Marathas and the Nizam. Expeditions to
the West Coast followed, in which the most cruel persecutions befell
the inhabitants. The only country there which Tipu had not subdued
was Travancore, which was under the protection of the British. But
at the end of 1789 he invaded it, and the British at once prepared for
war, having the Marathas and the Nizam as allies Lord Cornwallis,
the Governor-General, himself took command of the army. Aftei
capturing Bangaloie and many of the strongest hill forts around, he
besieged Senngapatam with such vigour that, m February, 1792, Tipu
was driven to accept the terms offered him : namely, the surrender of
half his territories, the payment of 3 crores and 30 lakhs of rupees,
and the delivery of two of his sons as hostages. With his misfortunes
the Sultan’s caprice, fanaticism, and spirit of innovation weie carried
to the verge of insanity He began to alter everything m the country.
The name of every object was changed— of cycles, years, and months ,
of weights, measures, and coins , of forts and towns ; of offices, military
and Civil , the official designation of all persons and things . a strange
parody of what was happening in France, of which he had probably
heard something Exports and imports were prohibited, in order to
protect domestic trade , the growth of poppy for opium was stopped,
and all liquor shops abolished, to prevent intoxication. Grants to
Hindu temples and the i 7 idms of pdtels were confiscated. The fine old
irrigation works were to be destroyed and reconstructed m his own
name. His evident aim was to obliterate every trace of previous
rulers, and to introduce a new order of things beginning with himself.
On the death in 1796 of the pageant Raja, no successor was appointed,
and the royal family were turned out of the palace, stripped of all.

Tipu next strained every nerve to form a coalition for the expulsion
of the British from India. Embassies were sent to Constantinople
and Kabul, letters to Arabia, Persia, and Maskatj agents to Delhi,
Oudh, Hyderabad, and Poona; proposals to Jodhpur, Jaipur, and
Kashmir. The French in particular were repeatedly applied to,

HISTORY

183

and Bonaparte’s invasion of Egypt encouraged the hope of imme-
diate aid, while overtures weie made by him to Tipu. But Nelson’s
great victory at the Nile soon put an end to Bonaparte’s designs on
the East. Lord Mornington, the Governor-General, had called on the
Sultan for an explanation of his pioceedings, and, receiving evasive
answers, resolved on war. The Nizam was again allied with the
British, but the Marathas stood aloof. General Harris, in command
of the grand army, having defeated Tipu at Malavalli, sat down before
Senngapatam on Apiil 5. The Sultan opened negotiations, but the
time having passed away without his accepting the terms offered,
the fortress was cairied by assault on May 4, 1799, body was

found among the slain

After mature deliberation it was decided to restore the descendant
of the former Rajas, under British protection, to the sovereignty of
part of the dominions thus left vacant, and to divide the rest among
the allies. The young prince, Krishna Raja Wodeyar, five years old,
was placed on the throne on June 30 Colonel Arthur Wellesley (the
future Duke of Wellington) was invested with the entire civil and
military control of the State ; Purnaiya, the Brahman minister of
Haidar and Tipu, was made Dlwan; and Colonel (afterwards Sir) Barry
Close was appointed Resident. Colonel Wellesley soon put down the
marauding chiefs who strove to establish themselves in various parts,
the country was reduced to good order, and the government was
eminently successful. A considerable portion of the Mysore army
subsequently took part in the war against the Marathas, marked by
Wellesley’s decisive victories on the fields of Assaye and Argaon.

In 1 81 1 the Raja, having come of age, was entrusted with the
government and Purnaiya retired, dying the following year. The
reign began with the brightest prospects, but the Raja’s extravagance
and lack of governing ability soon brought the affairs of a prosperous
country to the verge of rum. By 1814 the treasure accumulated by
Purnaiya had been dissipated on worthless favountes, the pay of the
army was in arrears, and the counsels of good advisers were unheeded.
Offices of state were sold to the highest bidder, and the revenue was
realized under an oppressive system called 'sharii The jails were
filled with prisoners awaiting sentence, to award which the judges
had no power. The British Government warned the Raja of the con-
sequences of his reckless conduct, and m 1825 Sir Thomas Munro,
Governor of Madras, personally visited Mysore to remonstrate with
him. But little good resulted, and in 1830 disaffection came to
a head m the Nagar country. A pretender was set up, and the in-
surrection spread to other parts. The State troops were sent against
/the insurgents ; but the latter continued to increase in strength, and
it became imperative to employ the British subsidiary force. After

MYSORE STATE

184

various operations, Nagar was taken and the rebellion brought to
an end.

The British Government now appointed a Committee to inquire
into the affairs of Mysore , and on their report the Governor-General,
Lord William Bentinck, resolved to act upon a clause of the original
treaty made with the Raja, and to deprive him of ruling power.
In October, 1831, he peaceably surrendered the reins of government
to the British Commissioners appointed to administer the country.
The Raja himself was allowed to remain at the capital, and a libeial
provision was made for him The Mysore Commission consisted
at first of a very few British officers, at the head of whom from
1834 was Colonel (afterwards Sir) Mark Cubbon. It was an onerous
task to free the admimstration from the abuses of long standing which
had crept mto every department, and to place the revenues on a
sound basis. But his wise and patient measures gradually bore fiuit
in a people made happy by release from serfdom, and a ruined State
restored to financial prosperity. No less than 769 petty items of
taxation were swept away, but the revenue continued to rise ; and
numberless oppressive practices were remedied. The Governor-
General, Lord Dalhousie, visited Mysore in 1855, and recorded his
full appreciation of what had been done, but considered that the
time had come to bring the system of administration into accordance
with modem ideas. Judicial, public works, and educational depart-
ments were therefore formed, and a larger British element brought
in. In 1861 Sir Mark Cubbon fell ill, and retired from the position
he had long filled with great honour.

The Raja had no male heir , and though his loyalty in the Mutiny
was undoubted, a sanad of adoption was not granted to him by Lord
Canning, on the ground that he was not a ruling chief. The Raja,
however, exercised his right as a Hindu, and adopted a son in 1865 ,
and after some deliberation the adoption was recognized in 1867
as valid in regard to the succession also. With the satisfaction that
his dynasty would be continued, he died in 1868, at the ripe age
of seventy-four.

Meanwhile, many changes had been made in the administration
of Mysore, bringing it more into line with the Regulation Provmces.
On Mr. Bowrmg, who succeeded Sir Mark Cubbon in 1862, the
introduction of these innovations devolved. The State was portioned
into new Divisions and Districts, with a larger staff of British officers.
Revenue survey and indm settlement, channel and forest conservancy,
village schools and municipalities, were some of the new measures
brought into operation before the recognition by the British Govern-
ment of a successor to the throne and during the minority of the
new Raja.

HISTORY

185

This young prince was carefully trained for his position under
European tutors ^ and on his attaining his majority, the rendition of
Mysore was carried out on March 25, 1881, on terms embodied
in an Instrument of Transfer^, which superseded all former treaties.
The powers of the Maharaja were defined, and the subsidy to be
paid m lieu of military assistance was enhanced. Mr. C. Rangacharlu
was appointed Dlwan, and continued at the head of the administiation
till his death in 1883. He was assisted by a small Council, and
the formation of what was called a Representative Assembly was
one of the most prominent measures of his time. The reduction
of expenditure being imperative, owing to the disastrous effects of
the famine of 1876-8, European officers were freely dispensed with,
many posts were abolished, various Districts broken up, and judicial
offices and jails reduced The British Government gave substantial
relief by postponing the levy of the enhanced subsidy of 10^ lakhs
for five years

Mr. (from 1893, Sir) K. Sheshadri Iyer succeeded as Dlwan, and
during his tenure of office, which he held till near his death in
1901, Mysore was raised to a high state of prosperity. Protection
against famine, which had again threatened the State in 1884 and
1891, was specially m view m the earlier operations Railways and
irrigation works were pushed on, and the British Government again
postponed for ten years the payment of the increased subsidy By
that time the revenue had more than doubled, the State debts had
been extinguished, and surplus funds had accumulated m the treasury.
This result was not due to new taxation in any form. Next to
good seasons, it was the effect of natural growth, under the stimulus
afforded by the opening out of the country by means of new roads
and railways, the execution of important irrigation works, and the
general expansion of industries, as well as in some measure of a better
management of particular souices of revenue. Every branch of the
administration was strengthened and improved j public works of un-
surpassed magnitude were carried out , gold-mining was fostered
m such a manner as to bring in a very substantial addition to the
coffers of the State , postal facilities were greatly increased ; cavalry
and transport corps were maintained for imperial defence , educational
institutions and hospitals were established on a large scale , civil
service examinations of a high standard were instituted, departments
were formed for archaeology and for the management of religious
and charitable institutions, later also for meteorology and geology ;
laboratories were founded for bacteriology and agricultural chemistry ;
and, to crown all, the Cauvery Falls were harnessed and the first
electric power works in India installed. To glance at the reverse
^ See Mysore Gazetteer (1897 edition), vol. 1, p. 450.

MYSORE STATE

1 86

of the shield, the fell spectre of plague appeared at Bangaloie in
August, 1898, and has since stalked through all parts. But this
dire foe was vigorously grappled with. Congested areas were opened
out, and general sanitary improvements enfoiced The vacancy in the
office of Diwan was filled in 1901 by Mr (now Sir) P. N. Krishna
Murti, descended from Purnaiya, who was succeeded m 1906 by
Mr. V. P Madhava Rao.

At the end of 1894 occurred at Calcutta the sudden death of the
universally respected Maharaja Chama Rajendra Wodeyar, in whose
person the administration of Mysore had been revived in i88t, and
the Maharani became Regent during the minority of her eldest son
This young prince, Krishna Raja Wodeyar, who has been assiduously
trained by European tutors, on attaining his majority was invested
with power in 1902 by the Viceroy in person

An epigraphic survey has been completed of the whole State
and about 9,000 inscriptions copied in The most memorable

discovery was that of edicts of Asoka in the Molakalmuru taluk in
1892, thus lifting the veil that had hidden the ancient history of the
South and marking an epoch in Indian aichaeology These and the
Jain inscriptions at Sravana Belgola relating to Chandra Gupta and
Bhadrabahu, and the Satakaini inscription at Malavalli m the Shikar-
pur ialuk^ have filled up the gap between the rise of the Mauryas
and that of the Kadambas. The origm and accession to poiver
of the latter have been made cleai by the Talgunda pillar-inscription
in the same taluk^ while the Vokkaleri plates from Kolar District
throw light upon the true significance of the Pallavas. The forgotten
dynasties of the Mahavalis or Banas, and of the Gangas who ruled
Mysore for so long, have been restored to history. The chronology
of the Cholas has for the first time been definitely fixed. The birth-
place of the Hoysalas has been discovered, and their history worked
out in detail. Most important additions have been made to the in-
formation relating to the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Nolambas,
the Seunas, the Vijayanagar kings, and other more modern dynasties.

There have been finds of prehistoric punch-marked pieces, called
purdna by the earlier Sanskrit writers, at Nagar , of Buddhist leaden
coins of the Andhra period, second century b.c. to second century a.d.,
at Chitaldroog, and of Roman coins dating from 21 b.c. to a.d. 51,
near Bangalore. Hoysala coins, before unknown, have been identified
and their legends deciphered. The diversified coins of the modern

* An Arclisieological department was formed in 1890, imdei Mr Lewis Rice, who
had been engaged for some years previously in archaeological work, in conjunction
with other duties

® These are published in a series called Epigraphia Cartmtica^ extendmg to twelve
volumes.

HISTORY 1S7

States that occupied Mysoie, and of Haidar and Tipu, ha\e been
tabulated and described.

Palm-leaf manuscripts have been collected, bringing to light the
Kanaiese liteiatuie from the earliest peiiod, which had been lost
in oblivion h

Prehistoric stone monuments, such as cromlechs and kistvaens, aie
found in most of the rocky tracts. The lattei, genet ally called Pandu
koh, aie known in Molakalmuru as Moryara mane^ ‘houses of the
Moiyas ’ or Mauiyas, and they are so named also among the Badagas
of the Nllgins Stone slabs elected as memoiials of heioes who
fell in battle are called vlrakaL They are sculp tuied with bas-reliefs,
of which the bottom one depicts the hero’s last fight, and the otheis
his triumphal ascent to paradise and lest theie. Similai memorials
to widows who have become sail and been burnt with then husbands
are called mdstikal They beai the figure of a post with a human aim
extended fiom it, holding a lime between the thumb and forefingei
These aie found mostly in the west.

The Jain temples are called basadi 01 bai>h^ and aie in the Dravidian
style. The chief group is on Chaudragui at Siavana Belgola. They
aie moie ornamental externally than Jain temples in the Noith of
India, and, Feigusson considers, beai a striking resemblance to the
temples of Southern Babylonia. In front is often a miina-i>tambha,
a most elegant and graceful monolith pillai, 30 to 50 feet high,
sui mounted by a small shrine or statue — lineal descendants, says the
same authoiity, of the pillars of the Buddhists. But the Jams also
have bettas^ literally ‘ hills,’ which are courtyards on a height, open to
the sky, and containing a colossal nude image of Gomata. That at
Sia\ana Belgola is 57 feet high^, and stands on the summit of
Indragin, 400 feet in elevation. It was erected about 983 by
Chamunda Raya, minister of the Ganga king Nothing grander 01
more imposing, says Fergusson, exists anywhere out of Egypt, and
even theie no known statue exceeds it in height

The Hindu temples are of either the Chalukyan or the Dravidian
style. The Hoysalas were great promoters of ait, and temples erected
by them or under their pationage in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, in the highly ornate Chalukyan style, aic not surpassed by
any in India. The best existing examples aie those at Halebid, Belui,
and Somanathpur. Fergusson, than w'hom there is no higher authority,
says : —

‘ The great temple at Halebid, had it been completed, is one of the

^ See intioduction to Karndtaka-Sabddnusasana This and other clasbical workh
are being published in a series called Bibliotheca Camattca, of which six volumes
have been issued.

® The only other two known, which are in South Kanara and much more modem,
then dates bemg 1431 and 1603, are 41 and 37 feet high.

VOL. XVIII. N

]/ySOA*E S'FATE

i8,s

buildings on which the luhoculo of Hindu auhitectuic would desire to
take his stand. 'Fhc aitistic combination of horizontal with vertical
lines, and the pla} ot light and shade, fai suipass anything in Gothic
ait. The effects aie ]ust what mediaeval aichitects weie often aiming
at, but which they nevei attained so perfectly h’

Examples of temples m the l)ra\idian st}le, of which the ^opumm oi
pyiamidal toivei is genciall) the most imposing featuie, may be seen
at Senngapatam, Chamundi, ISIelukote, and othei places m the south.
The budges ol Hindu consti action at Senngapatam and Sivasamudram
are noticed in connexion with the vuver\ .

Ot Saiacenic architecture the best icmains are the Mughal buildings
at Sira, and the Pathan mosque at Sante Bennui. The Gumbaz oi
mausoleum of Haidar and Tipu at Ganjam and the mosque at Sennga-
patam deserve notice Hut the most oinamental is the Daiya Daulat,
TipCi’s summer palace at the latter place Mr J. D. Rees, who has
travelled much in India and Persia, says

‘ The lavish decoiations, which covei eveiy inch of wall fiom fiist to
last, fiom top to bottom, lecall the palaces of Ispahan, and resemble
nothing that I know m India/

The temples of the Malnad in the west coiiespond in style to those
of Kanara The fiamewoik is of wood, standing on a terrace of
laterite, and the whole is co\eicd with a tiled and gabled loof. The
wooden pillais and joists aie often well caived.

'Phe table below gives details of the population of the State and

_ , Its constituent Districts as returned at the Census

Population, ^

of lyoi —

Vrea

Nuiubei of

Total population

III ban population

Pei sons

DibtULt

^qua^e

miles

Pei -,onb

Males

Females

Pcisous

Males

t eiualeb

square
mile in
luial
areas

Uangaloie
KoUr
Tumkar
Mysore .
Basbau
Kadar .
3 hwnoj;a
Chitaldioog

3,092

3,180

4,ts8

5,496

2,647

3,8x3

4,025

4,022

I j

^,750

3,409

2,753

3,312

1 2,546

1,352

2,017

r ,440

879,263

723,600

679,162

1,295,17^

568,919

362,752

531,736

498,795

441,912

367,683

342,070

641,150

283,043

190,126

377,258

353,782

437,351

355,917

337,092

65 1.*---

.-85,676

172,626

254,478

245,013

‘3

88,80-.

S8,668

163,062

45,901

40,698

41,236

53,531

116,466

47,745

29,331

81,389
23,207 1
21,739
21,082
26,918

113,681

41,115

39,337

81,673

22,694

t 8,959

20,154

26,613

'212

201

149

206

197

Its

132

III

Total

29,433

128

19,479

5 , 539,399

2,797,024

2 742,375

722,103

367,877

354 , -^26

164

Taking the natural divisions of Malnad and Maidan, 1 7 per cent, of
the area of the State and 1 2 per cent, of the population belong to the

^ Mutoiy of Itidtan and Master h Avckiischiret See also Avchttectiire of JDha) war
and Jllysore, where he says . * It is worthy of remark that the great architectural age
in India should have been the thirteenth century, which witnessed such a wonderful
development of a kindred style [meaning the Gothic] m Euiope ’

POPULATION

t8(;

first, and the remainder to the second. The mean density is 185
persons per squaie mile. Mysore is the largest District, and contains
the dynastic capital. Its total population is the highest, but in density
of rural population it stands second Bangalore Distnct, the sixth in
area, is second in total population and first in density of rural popula-
tion. In It are situated the administrative capital of Mysore, and the
Civil and Military Station with its large garrison, which is an Assigned
Tract under British administration. The most populous taluks are
those watered by the Cauvery, with Bangalore and Anekal

The urban population is 13 per cent, of the whole. Four places
have been treated as cities in the Census of 1901 . namely, Mysore,
Bangalore, the adjoining British Civil and Military Station, and
the Kolar Gold Fields. The population of Bangalore (taking the
city and the Civil and Military Station togethei) was 159,046, of
Mysore city 68,111, and of the Gold Fields 38,204. Owing chiefly
to plague, there had been since 1891 a loss of 21,320 in Bangalore
and of 5,937 in Mysore, while, m spite of plague, the Gold Fields
gained 31,119. The number of towns is 124, of which Mysore,
Tumkur, and Bangalore Districts contain 26, 18, and 16 respectively,
and Kolai and Kadur only ii and 10. A town is a municipality of
whatever si^e, or a place not absolutely rural containing a population
of 5,000 and above. Only five of these towns have a population
exceeding 10,000 — Kolar, Tumkur, Channapatna, Davangere, and
Tarikere — while the population of twenty-seven lies between 5,000 and
10,000, of which eight belong to Mysore and five to Bangalore
District. The inhabited villages number 16,884. In the Maidan
a village may have dependent hamlets grouped with it. In the
Malnad, villages are often such only in name, being composed of
scattered homesteads at various distances apart. The towns and
villages vary little as regards the main occupations and habits of life of
the people, but those which are also market places or fdluk head-
quarters become centres of trade and home industries. The number
of houses per square mile rose from 25 in 1881 to 37 in 1901, and
the occupants per house averaged 5 at the latter date as compared with
5*6 twenty years before.

The variation in total population at each Census has been (1871)
5,055,102, (1881) 4,186,188, (1891) 4,943,604, and (1901) 5,539,399
The fall in 1881 was due to the great famine of 1876-8, but was almost
compensated by the rise in 1891. In spite of plague, the last Census
shows a marked general increase of 12 per cent. The rise has been
greatest in Kolar and Chitaldroog Districts, and least in Kadur, the
population of which has scarcely varied. The increase in the Districts
of Mysore, Hassan, and Shimoga is below the average.

In 1901, according to the census returns, 306,381 persons enumerated

MYSOJ^E STATE

\ 90

in the State had been bom out of it, and 132,343 bom in the State
were registered elsewhere. The greatest increase of foieign immigrants
IS of couise m Kolar, in connexion with the gold-mines. But all the
Districts show an increase under this head, especially Hassan and
Kadur, which aie coffee-growing tracts

The percentage distiibution of the total population undei different
age periods is as follows 13*03 of ages o to 5 , 26*87 of 5 to 15 , 22*01
of 15 to 30 , 20 63 of 30 to 45 , 11*93 45 ; and 5-51 of 60

and ovei. Females aie in a total latio of 981 to 1,000 males, but the>
exceed males at ages 3 to 4, 20 to 35, 50 to 55, and at 60 and o\ei.

Except in Bangalore city and Civil and Military Station, and in
Mysore city, vital statistics cannot be accepted as leliable , and even m
those places it is chiefly since the outbreak of plague in 1S98 that
particular attention and sciutiny have been given to them, with special
refeience to the numbei of deaths. In other parts the pdtel 01
headman has to keep up the legister, undei the control of the revenue
officers , but as theie is no obligation on houscholdeis to repoit
domestic occuriences, he can haidly be held lesponsible for the
accuiac> of the returns. The following table is compiled from such
statistics as are available, but the numbers of both births and deaths
aie manifestly undei stated :

Yeai

Population

under

legist ration.

Ratio ot
i egistered
births
pel 1,000

Ratio ol
registered
deaths
per 1,000

Deaths pci i,ooo from

Clioleia

Small

pox

Fever

BovveJ

com

plaints

18S1

1891

1901

1904

4,186,188

4,843»523

5,449,800

23*77

19 80
15. 28

14*05

17 01
1403

1998

21 83

o.oi

0*25

2 oS

0 09

0.61

1.05

1.19

0 23

1047

791
8.12
TO 64

I 15

1 02
1.04

I I 2

For the decade ending 1901, Chitaldroog and Mysore show the highest
and lowest birth-rates respectu ely, and Shimoga and Tunikur the
highest and low’^est death-rates.

There were 1,025,838 cases treated in the hospitals and dispensaries
of the State in 1901, of which 46 pei cent, were those of men, and the
rest of women and children m the proportion of about 2 to 3 The
diseases treated are classed as general or local, 42 per cent, belonging
to the former class. Of these, the most numerous w^ere malarial fevers,
worms, rheumatic affections, debility and anaemia, and venereal
diseases. Of local, the greater number were diseases of the skin,
the digestive system, the eye, the lungs, and injuries.

Plague first appeared in August, 1898, at Bangalore, being imported
by lail fiom Dharwai. By the end of June, 1904, it had claimed
106,950 victims in the whole State, out of 141,403 cases of seizure. In

POPULATION

191

othei words, 2*5 per cent, of the population were attacked by plague,
and of those attacked neaily 76 per cent died The figuies for each
year show a large decrease in 1899-1900 and a rise since. With
1903-4 the numbers are again going down. The temporary decrease
m the second year was probably due to extensive exodus to other parts,
a drier season owing to deficient rainfall, general inoculation, and
enforcement of passport legulations. Special restrictions have since
been virtually withdrawn ; but evacuation of infected places, general or
local disinfection by chemicals or desiccation, and the opening out of
congested parts are in operation’. No place has suffered more than
Mysore city, where 17 per cent of the deaths have occurred. A
regulation was passed in 1903 appointing a special board for the
improvement of the city. Shimoga and Kadui Districts weie fiee till
1900, and Chitaldroog District had no deaths fiom plague in that
year. The disease seems to be at its maximum about October, and
at its minimum about May, these being lespectively the wettest
and driest months in the year.

The figures obtained at the Census of 1901 are a gauge of the
infant mortality occasioned by the famine of 1876-8, and by the
unhealthy years, culminating m plague, of the decade ending 1901.
The following table gives the ratio of infants of either sex to 1,000 of
the same sex —

Age,

r88t

1891

1901

0-5

5-To .

M. 91
M. 137

F. 98
F. 141

M 138
M. 136

F. 147
F 141

M. 128
M. 142

F. T33
F 145

The proportion of females to 1,000 males in the whole State in 190T
was 981, the figures for the urban population being 963, and for the
rural 983. In 1871 the proportion was 994, in 1881 it was 1,007, ^rid
in 1891 it was 991. The relative number of females has thus fallen
considerably in the thirty years Hindus exceeded the geneial average
at each Census Christians had the fewest females in the three
previous census years, and in 1901 this position was held by the Jains.
Females exceed males in Mysore and Hassan Districts (1,020 and
1,0 to), and are most in defect in Shimoga and Kadur (918 and 908).
In the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore the ratio is 986, in
Mysore city 984, m Bangalore city 931, and in the Kolar Gold Fields
only 699, as might be expected. Since 1891 males have increased by
12-6 per cent, and females by it *4

The unmarried, the married, and the widowed are respectively 47*46,
40 3^, and T2*2o pel cent, of the population. Females form 41 pei cent

’ Large extensions have been added to Bangalore city, and a new town on modem
lines has been laid out at the KoUr Gold hields

192

MYSORE STATE

of the unmaiiied, 51 of the maiiied, and 79 of the widowed. Chiistians
have the highest proportion of unmarried and the lowest of widowed
in both sexes. Next come Animists and Musalmans, with lower
proportions of unmarried and higher of widowed The Jains have a
highei ratio of bachelors than the Hindus, but among them spinsteis
are proportionately fewest and widowers and widows most numerous.

Infant marriage of girls pievails most among the Jams and Hindus,
and scarcely at all among Christians, but theie aie cases m all leligions
Of 1,000 married females, 54 are undei five years of age. But of
course these are really cases of betrothal, though as irrevocable as
marriage, and causing widow'hood if death should intervene. Chital-
droog District shows the highest proportion of such cases , certain sub-
divisions of Wokkaligas there are said to have a custom of betrothing
the childien of neai relations to one anothei within a fcAv months of
their birth, the ta/?, or token of the marriage bond, being tied to the
ciadle of the infant girl. Some of the Panchala artisans and devotee
Lingayats seem especially given to infant man lage By a Regulation
of 1894 the marriage of girls undei 8 has been piohibited in Mysore,
and also that of girls under 14 to men of ovei 50. Of the total num-
ber of married females, 7-6 per cent, are under 15, and 12*3 per cent,
between 15 and 20 Among Brahmans and Komatis girls must be
married before puberty, and in the majority of cases the ceremony
takes place between 8 and 12. In other castes girls are mostly
married between the ages of 10 and 20. Above this age there aie very
few spinsters, and these principally among native Christians, though
among Lambanis and Iruligas, classed as Animists, brides are often
over 30. Of widows, more than 73 pei cent are ovei 40 Roughly
speaking, among Christians and Jains one widow in 3 is under 40, in
the other religions one in 4. After 40 more than half the women aie
widows. Remarriage of widows is utterly repugnant to most Hindu
castes, though permissible in some of the lower ones It appears from
the census returns that 5*8 per cent, of widows were remarried , but
this was pnncipally among Woddas and Jogis, who are not socially very
important, and among Musalman Labbais and nomad Koramas

Of the male sex, seven youths under 15 in 1,000 aie married; from
15 to 20 there are 13*3 per cent married and 0*2 per cent, widowers ,
from 20 to 40 there are 69 per cent, married and 3-7 per cent
widowers , over 40 there are 78-7 per cent marned and 17-7 per cent,
widowers.

Polygamy is rare, though allowed by all classes except Christians.
Cast-oif or widowed women of the lower orders sometimes attach
themselves as concubines to men who have legitimate wives. Among
the higher castes a second wife is taken only when the first proves
barren, 01 is incurably ill, or immoral But unless put away for

POPULATIOK'

193

immoral conduct, the first wife alone is entitled to join the husband in
religious ceremonies, and the second can do so only with hei consent
The propoition of married men who have more than one wife is 18 in
1,000 Ammists and Musalmans stand highest in this respect, and
next come labouring and agricultuial classes such as Woddas, Idigas,
Wokkaligas, and Kurubas.

There are no statistics for divorce. Polyandry and infanticide are
unknown in Mysore, as also inheritance through the mother The
joint family system continues among Hindus, but modern influences
are tending to break it up.

The distinctive language of Mysore is Kannada, the Karnata or
Karnataka of the pa?2difs^ and the Kanaiese of European wiiteis. It is
the speech of 73 pei cent, of the population, and pievails every\vheie
except in the east. Telugu, confined to Kolar District and some of
the eastern tdluks^^ is the language of 15 per cent. Tamil (called heie
Arava) is the speech of 4 per cent., and piedominates at the Kolai
Gold Fields and among the seivants of Europeans, camp-followers, and
cantonment traders. A more or less coirupt Tamil is spoken by
certain long-domiciled classes of Biahmans (Srivaishnava, Sanketi, and
Bnhachcharana), and by Tigala cultivators, but its use is only colloquial.
Marathi, which is spoken by 1*4 per cent, of the population, is the
language of Deshasth Brahmans and Darzis or tailors, the former being
most numerous in Shimoga District. Hindustani, the language of
Musalmans, who form 5-22 per cent, of the population, is spoken by
only 4*8 per cent., the difference being due to the Labbais and other
Musalmans from the south w'ho speak Tamil. In each of these
vernaculars there has been since 1891 an inciease of about ii per
cent,, except in Tamil, which has increased 42 per cent, owing to
the influx of labour at the gold-mines and partly on the railw^ays.

The Hindus have been arranged undei 72 castes or classes. Of
these, the strongest numerically are Wokkaligas (1,287,000), Lmgayats
(671,000), and Holeyas (596,000), who between them make up 46 per
cent, of the total population. The Wokkaligas (in Hindustani, Kunbi)
are the cultivators or lyots. They include numerous tribes, some of
Kanarese and some of Telugu origin, who neithei eat together nor
intermarry. Then headmen are called Gaudas. Mairiage is not
always performed before puberty, and polygamy has some vogue, the
industry of the w^omen being generally profitable to the husband.
Widow remarriage is allowed, but lightly esteemed. The Wokkaligas
are mostly vegetarians and do not drink intoxicating liquor They
bury theii dead. The Gangadikara, who form nearly one-half of the
class, are purely Kanarese, found chiefly m the central and southern
tracts. They represent the subjects of the ancient Gangavadi which
foimed the nucleus of the Ganga empiie. At the present day they aie

194

MYSORE STATE

followeis some of Siva and some of Vishnu. Next in numbeis are the
Morasn Wokkaligas, chiefly in Kolai and Bangalore Distiicts They
appear to have been onginally immigrants fiom a district called
Morasu-nad, to the east of Mysore, whose chiefs formed settlements
at the end of the fourteenth century in the parts round Nandidroog
The section called Beralukoduva (‘ finger-giving ’) had a strange custom,
which, on account of its cruelty, was put a stop to by Government.
Every woman of the sect, befoie piercing the ears of her eldest daughter
preparatory to betrothal, had to suffer amputation of the ring and little
fingers of the light hand, the operation being perfoimed by the village
blacksmith with a chisel. The sacred place of the Moiasii Wokkaligas
is Siti-betta in the Kolar whete there is a temple of Bhanava
Of other laige tribes of Wokkaligas, the Sada abound mostly in the
north and west. They include Jams and Lingayats, Vaishnavas and
wSaivas Not impiobably they all belonged onginally to the fiist. In
the old days many of them acted in the Kandachai or native militia.
They are not only cultivators but sometimes trade in grain. The
Reddi are found chiefly in the east and north, and have numerous
subdivisions. To some extent they seem to be of Telugu origin, and
have been supposed to represent the subjects of the ancient Rattavadi,
01 kingdom of the Rattas. The Nonabas, in like manner, are relics of
the ancient Nolambavadi oi Nonambavadi, a Pallava piovmce, situated
in Chitaldroog District. At the present day they are by faith
Lingayats, the residence of their chief being at Gaudikere near
Chiknayakanhalli. The acknowledged head of the Nonabas lives at
Hosahalli near Gubbi. The Halepaiks of the Nagar Malnad are of
special interest as being probably aboriginal. Their name is said to
mean the ‘old foot,’ as they furnished the foot-soldiers and body-guards
of former lulers, to whom they were noted for their fidelity. Their
principal occupation now is the extraction of toddy from the
palm {Cary of a U7‘e7is)^ the cultivation of rice land, and of Mfis or woods
containing pepper vines ; but they are described as still fond of fire-
arms, biave, and great sportsmen. In Vastara and Tuluva (South
Kanara) they are called Billavas oi ‘ bowmen ’ In Manjarabad they
are called Devara makkalu, ‘ God’s children.’ The Halu Wokkaligas
are mostly in Kadur and Hassan Districts. They are dairymen and
sell milk {M/u\ whence their name, as well as engage in agriculture.
The Halhkara are also largely occupied with cattle, the breed of their
name being the best in the Araiit Mahal The Lalgonda, chiefly
found m Bangaloie District, not only farm, but hire out bullocks, or
are gardeners, buildeis of mud walls, and traders in straw, &c. The
Vellala are the most numeious class of Wokkaligas in the Civil and
Military Station of Bangalore. Another large class, as numerous as
the Reddi, are the Kunchitiga, widely spiead but mostly found in the

POPULATTOX

T95

cential tiacts. The women piepaie and sell dal (pigeon pea), while
the men engage m a variety of trades.

The Hole5^as (Tamil, Paraiya , Maiathi, Dhed) are outcastes,
occupying a quarter of their own, called the Holageri, outside every
village boundary hedge They are indigenous and probably aboriginal.
They have numerous subdivisions, which eat together but only intei-
marry between known families. A council of elders decides all
questions of tubal discipline. They are regarded as unclean by the
four principal castes, and particularly by the Brahmans. In ruial paits
especially, a Holeya, having anything to deliver to a Biahman, places
it on the ground and letires to a distance, and on meeting a Brahman
in the road endeavouis to get away as fai as possible Biahmans and
Holeyas mutually avoid passing through the parts they respectively
occupy in the villages ; and a wilful transgression in this lespect, if it
did not create a not, would make puiification necessary, and that for
both sides. They often take the vow to become Dasaii, and regard
the Satani as priests, but a Holeya is himself generally the priest of the
village goddess. Under the name of Tirukula, the Holeyas have the
privilege of entering the great temple at Melukote once a year to pay
their devotions, said to be a reward foi assisting Ramanuja to recover
the image of Kiishna which had been carried off to Delhi by the
Musalmans. The Holeya marriage rite is merely a feast, at which the
biidegroom ties a token round the biide’s neck. A wife cannot be
divorced except for adultery. Widows may not remarry, but often live
with another man. The Holeyas eat flesh and fish of all kinds, and
even cairion, piovided the animal died a natural death, and drink
spirituous liquors. As a body the Holeyas are the servants of the
ryots, and are mainly engaged in following the plough and watching
the herd.s. They also make certain kinds of coaise cloth, worn by the
poorer classes The Aleman section furnishes recruits foi the Barr
sepoy regiments In the Maidan a Holeya is the kulavddi^ and has
a recognized place in the village corporation He is the village police-
man, the beadle, and the headman’s factotum The kiilavadis are the
ultimate referees in cases of boundary disputes, and if they agree no
one can challenge the decision. In the Malnad the Holeya was merely
a slave, of which there w^ere two classes the hittdl^ or slave born m
the house, the hereditary serf of the family , and the 7 nan?idl, or slave
of the soil, who was bought and sold with the land. Now these have
of course been emancipated, and some are becoming owners of land.
In urban centres they are rising in lespectability and acquiring wealth,
so that in certain cases their social disabilities are being overcome, and
m public matters especially their complete ostracism cannot be main-
tained

'1 en other castes, each above too,ooo, make up between them 30

MYSORE STATE

ig6

pel cent, of the population They are the Kuiuba (378,000), Madiga

(280.000) , Beda or Bedar (245,000), Brahman (190,000), Besta

(153.000) , Golla (143,000), Wodda (135,000), Banajiga (123,000),
Panchala (126,000), and Uppara (106,000). The Kurubas are shep-
herds and weavers of native blankets {kamdli) There is no intercourse
between the general body and the division called Hande Kurubas
The former worship Eire Deva and are Saivas, their priests being
Brahmans and Jogis The caste also worship a box, which they
believe contains the wearing apparel of Krishna, under the name of
Junjappa. Parts of Chitaldioog and the town of Kolar are noted for
the manufacture by the Kurubas there of a superior woollen of fine
texture like homespun. The women spin wool, and as they are very
industrious, polygamy pievails, and even adulteiy is often condoned,
their laboui being a source of profit. The wild 01 Kadu Kurubas
(8,842) are subdivided into Betta 01 ‘hill,’ and Jenu 01 ‘honey,’
Kurubas. The foimei are a small and active race, expert woodmen,
and capable of enduring great fatigue The lattei are a darker and
infeiior lace, who collect honey and beeswax Their villages 01
clusters of huts are called hadt\ and a separate hut is set apart at one
end foi the unmarried females to sleep in at night, and one at the othei
end for the unmaiiied males, both being under the supeivision of the
headman. Giils are mariied only after pubeity, either according to
the Wokkaliga custom, or by a mere formal exchange of aieca-nut and
betel-leaf. Polygamy exists, but the offspring of concubines are not
considered legitimate. All kinds of meat except beef are eaten, but
intoxicating drinks are not used. In case of death, adults are cremated
and children buried. The Betta Kurubas worship forest deities called
Norale and Mastamma, and are said to be revengeful, but if treated
kindly will do willing service The Jenu Kurubas neither owui nor
cultivate land foi themselves, nor keep live-stock of their own. Both
classes are expert m tracking wild animals, as well as skilful in eluding
pursuit by wild animals accidentally encountered. Theii children
when over two years old move about freely in the jungle

The Madigas are similar to the Holeyas, but distinguished from
them by being woikeis m leather They remove the cai cases of dead
cattle, and dress the hides to provide the villageis wuth leathern
ai tides, such as the thongs for bullock yokes, buckets foi raising watei,
&:c. They are largely engaged m field labour, and in uiban centres are
earning much money, owing to the increasing demand for hides and
their work as tanneis. They worship Vishnu, Siva, and theii female
counterparts or Saktis, and have five different gurus 01 maths in the
State. They have a division called Desabhaga, w'ho do not mtermariy
with the others They acknowledge Srivaishnava Brahmans as their
gu 7 -us^ and have also the names Jambavakiil.i and Matanga They are

POPULATION

197

privileged to enter the couityaid of the Belur temple at ceitain times to
present the god with a pair of slippers, which it is the duty of those in
Channagin and Basavapatna to provide Their customs are much the
same as those of the Holeyas The Bedas (Bedar), 01 Naiks, are
both Kanarese and Telugu, the two sections neither eating together nor
mtei marrying One third are m Chitaldroog District, and most of the
lest in Kolar and Tumkur They were formerly hunters and soldiers
by piofession, and largely composed Haidar's and Tipu’s infantry.
Many of the Mysore pohgars were of this caste. They now engage
in agriculture, and serve as police and revenue peons. They claim
descent from Valmiki, author of the Ramayana, and are chiefly Vaish-
navas, but worship all the Hindu deities. In some parts they erect
a circular hut for a temple, with a stake in the middle, which is the
god. In common with the Golla, Kuruba, Madiga, and othei classes,
they often dedicate as a Basavi or prostitute the eldest daughter in a
family when no son has been boin , and a giil falling ill is similaily
vowed to be left unman led, 1 e. to the same fate. If she bear a son, he
is affiliated to her father’s family Except as regards beef, they aie not
restiicted in food or drink. Polygamy is not uncommon, but divorce
can be resorted to only in case of adultery. Widows may not remarry,
but often live with another Beda. The dead are buried. The caste
often take the vow to become Dasari. Their chief deity is the god
Venkataramana of Tirupati, locally worshipped under the name
Tirumala, but offerings and sacrifices are also made to Mariamma
Their giiru is known as Tirumala TMchaiya, a head of the Srivaish-
nava Brahmans. The Machi or Myasa branch, also called Chunchu,
circumcise their boys at ten or twelve years of age, besides initiating
them with Hindu rites. They eschew all strong drink, and will not
even touch the date-palm from which it is extracted. They eat beef,
but of birds only partridge and quail. Women in childbirth are
segregated. The dead aie cremated, and their ashes scattered on
tangadi bushes {Cassia aiiriculata) This singular confusion of cus-
toms may perhaps be due to the forced conversion of large numbers
to Islto in the time of Haidai to foim his Chela battalions. The
Telugu Bedas are called Boya. One section, who are shikaris, and live
on game and forest produce, are called Myasa or Vyadha. The othei s
are settled in villages, and live by fishing and day laboui. The
latter employ Brahmans and Jangamas as priests, but the former call
m elders of their own caste The Myasa women may not wear toe-
nngs, and the men may not sit on date mats.

Bestas are fishermen, boatmen, and palanquin-bearers. This is their
name in the east ; in the south they are called Toreya, Ambiga, and
Parivara ; in the west Kabyara and Gangemakkalu. Those who speak
Telugu call themselves Bhoyi, and have a headman called Pedda

.VVSORE STATE

it)S

r>hoy] One bertion aie lim{‘'lniinei‘=: Some aie peons, and a large
numho! engage in agneultute. 'Fbeir domestic customs aie similar to
those of the c'astes above mentioned Then goddess is Yellamma,
and they aie mostly worshippers of Siva They employ Brahmans and
Sltlinis foi domestic ceremonies The Gollas are cowherds and dairy-
num The Kddu oi ‘forest’ Gollas ate distinct from the Uru or
‘ town’ Gullas, and the two neithei eat together noi inteimarry One
section was foimeily largely employed in transporting money fiom
one pan of the countu to anothei, and gained the name Dhanapala
One t)f tlic sen ants in Govein merit tieasiines is still called the Golla.
'They woiship Knshna as having been bom in then caste. The
Krulu Gollas aie nomadic, and live in thatched huts outside the villages
At childbirth the mothei and babe are kept m a small hut apait fiom
the others foi fiom seven to thiity da>s. If ill, none of her caste
will attend on hei, but a Naik oi Bcda wtiman is engaged to do so.
XTsHnages aie likewise perfoimed in a tempoiaiy shed outside the
Milage, to which the w’edded pan return only aftei five days of
tVsti\U\ Golla w'omen do not weai the bodice, not m widowhood
do they l)ieak off then glass bangles Reman iage of widow^s is not
allowed

The W’oddas aie composed of Kallu AVoddas and Mannu Woddas,
betwven whom theie is no social intercouise oi intei marriage. The
Kallu Woddas, who consider themselves supeiior to the otheis, aie
stonemasons, quanying, tiansporting, and building with stone, and
are very dexterous in moving large masses by simple mechanical
means. The Mannu Woddas aie chiefly tank-diggers, well-sinkers,
and generally skilful navvies foi all kinds of earthwork, the men
digging and the w'omen removing the earth Though a hard-working
(lass, they ha\e the reputation of as.sistmg dacoits and burglars by
giving infuinuUuin as to plundei l^hc young and robust of the
Mannu Woddas of both sexes tiavel about in caravans in search of
employment, taking wuth them their infants and huts, which consist
of a few^ stu'ks and mats On obtaining any laige earthwork, they
form an encampment in the neighbouihood d’he older members
settle m the outskirts of towns, \vhere many of both sexes now’ find
employment m various kinds of sanitaiy w’ork. They were probably
immigrants from Orissa and the Telugu countiy, and generally speak
Telugu. They eat meat and dunk spirits, and are given to polygamy.
Widows and divorced women can reman y Both classes w’orship all
the hlindu deities, but chiefly Vishnu.

The Banajigas are the great trading class. The subdivisions are
numeioiis, but there are thiee main branches — the Panchama, Telugu,
and Jain Ranajigas— who neithei eat togelhei noi intermarry. The
first aie LingWats, huMng then nwm pnests, w’ho officiate at marnages

roruLAT/oy

199

and funeralb, and punish bleaches ol caste discipline. Telugu Bana-
jigas aie very numeious. The Sauas and Vaishnavas among them
do not intermix socially. The latter acknowledge the guru of the
Siivaishnava Brahmans They fiequently take the \ow to become
Dasan. Many dancing-girls aie of this caste The Panchala, as their
name implies, embrace five guilds of artisans . namely, goldsmiths,
brass and coppersmiths, blacksmiths, carpenters, and sculptors They
weal the triple cord and consider themselves equal to the Biahmans,
who, howevei, deny then pretensions. The goldsmiths are the
lecognized heads of the clan The Panchala have a guru of then
ovNn caste, though Biahmans officiate as purohits. The Uppara aic
saltmakers. This is then name m the east , in the south they aie
called Uppaliga, and in the ^\ebt Melusakkare There are two classes,
Kannada and Telugu. The foimei make eaith-salt, while the lattei
aie bricklayeis and buildeis They are woishippeis of Vishnu and
Dhaima Raya.

The agiicultuial, aitisan, and tiading communities foim a species
of guilds called phana (apparently a very ancient institution), and these
are divided into two factions, termed Balagai (right-hand) and Yedagai
(left-hand). The foimer contains 18 phana^ headed by the Banajiga
and Wokkaliga, with the Holeya at the bottom , while the latter
contains 9 phana ^ with the Panchala and Nagaita (traders) at the head,
and the Madiga at the bottom. Brahmans, Kshattriyas, and most
of the Sudras are consideied to be neutral Each paity insists on
the exclusive light to certain privileges on all public festivals and
ceremonies, which are jealously guarded. A breach on eithei side
leads to faction fights, w^hich formeily were of a furious and sometimes
sanguinaiy charactei Thus, the right-hand claim the exclusive
piivilege of having 12 pillars to the mairiage pandal^ the left-hand
being restiicted to ii , of riding on horseback in processions, and
of carrying a flag painted with the figure of Hanuman. In the Census
of 1891 the people by common consent lepudiated the names Balagai
and Yedagai, and preferred to return themselves as of the 18 pha?ta
or the 9 phana In the Census of 1901 even this distinction w^as
Ignored, and the people returned themselves m various irreconcilable
w^ays, mostly as belonging to the 12 pha?ia The old animosity of
the factions seems to be wearing aw^ay.

Of nomad tribes, more than half are Lambanis and another fouith
aie Koracha, Korania, or Korava. The first are a gipsy tribe that
wander about in gangs with large herds of bullocks, transporting gram
and other produce, especially in the hilly and forest tracts. Of late
years some have been employed on coffee estates, and some have even
partially abandoned their vagrant life, and settled, at least for a time,
in villages of their own. These, called tdndas^ aie composed of groups

200

MYSORE STATE

of their usual rude wicker huts, pitched on waste ground in wild places.
The women bung in bundles of firewood from the jungles for sale
in the towns. The Lambanis speak a mixed dialect called Kutnl,
largely composed of Hindi and Marathi corruptions. The women
are distinguished by a pictuiesque dress different from that worn by
any other class. It consists of a soit of tartan petticoat, with a
stomacher over the bosom, and an embioidered mantle covering the
head and uppei pait of the body The hair is worn in ringlets or
plaits, hanging down each side of the face, decorated with small shells,
and ending m tassels The arms and ankles are profusely covered
with trinkets made of bone, brass, and other lude materials. The
men weai tight cotton bieeches, reaching a little below the knee, with
a waistband ending in led silk tassels, and on the head a small red
oi white turban. There is a class of Lambani outcastes, called Dhalya,
who are drummers and live separately They chiefly trade m bullocks
The r^ambanis hold Gosains as their gurus ^ and reverence Krishna ,
also Basava, as representing the cattle that Krishna tended But their
chief object of worship is Banashankari, the goddess of forests Their
marriage iite consists of mutual gifts and a tipsy feast The bridal
pair also pour milk down an ant-hill occupied by a snake, and make
offerings to it of coco-nuts and flowers Polygamy is in vogue, and
widows and divoiced women may lemairy, but with some disabilities.
The Lambanis are also called Sukali and Bnnjaii. The Koracha,
Korama, or Korava are a numerous wandering tube, who carry salt
and gram from one market to another by means of large droves of
cattle and asses, and also make bamboo mats and baskets The men
wear their haii gathered up into a big knot or bunch on one side of
the top of the head, resembling what is seen on ancient sculptuied
stones. The women may be known by numerous strings of small
led and white glass beads and shells, worn round the neck and falling
ovei the bosom In the depths of the forest they are even said to
dispense with more substantial covering. A custom like couvade is
said to linger among the Korava, but this is not certain The dead
aie buned at night in out-of-the-way spots. The women are skilful
in tattooing. The Iruliga are the remaining wild tribe, and include
the Sholaga, who live in the south-east in the Biligiri-Rangan hills.
They are very dark, and are keen-sighted and skilful in tracking game
They cultivate small patches of jungle clearings with the hoe, on the
kumri or shifting system. Polygamy is the rule among them, and
adultery is unknown When a girl consents to marriage, the man runs
away with her to some other place till the honeymoon is over, when
they return home and give a feast. They live in bamboo huts thatched
with plantain leaves.

The percentage of the followers of each religion to the whole popu-

JW^UZJTIOA’

201

lation aL the Census ut 1901 was, in order of strength ; Hindus, 92 i ,
Musalmans, 5 2 , Ammists, i-6 , Christians, 0-9 ; Jams, 0*2 There
lemained 158 persons who weie Parsis, Sikhs, Jews, Biahmos, 01
Buddhists , loi weie Parsis and 34 Jews The percentage of increase
111 each religion since 1891 was: Christians, 31*3 ; Musalmans, 14*5 ,
Hindus, ti*5j Jams, 3

Of Hindu religious sects 111 Mysore, Lingayats are by far the
strongest in numbeis, and if, in addition to those returned as such,
the Nonaba, Banajiga, and others belonging to the sect be taken into
account, they cannot be much below 800,000. Theii own name for
themselves is Sivabhakta oi Sivachai, and Vira Sana Their distinctive
maik IS the wearing of a jangama (or poi table) Imgam on the person,
hence the name Lmgayata or Lmgavanta The lingain is a small stone,
about the sue of an acoin, enshrined in a silver casket of peculiar
shape, worn suspended from the neck or bound to the arm. They
also mark the forehead with a round white spot. The clerics smear
their faces and bodies with ashes, and wear garments of the colour
of red ochre, with a rosaiy of rudrdksha beads round the neck

Phallic worship is no doubt one of the most ancient and widely
diffused forms of religion m the world, and the Lingayats of late have
made doubtful pretensions to date as far back as the time of Buddha.
Among the Saiva sects mentioned by the refoimer Sankaiachaiya as
exi.sting in India in the eighth centuiy were the Jangamas, who he says
wore the trident on the head and cairied a lingam made of stone on
their persons, and whom he denounces as iinoithodox. Of this sect
the Lingayats claim to be the repiesentatives Whether this be so
or not, It is undoubted that the Lingayat faith has been the popular
creed of the Kanarese-speakmg countries fiom the twelfth century.

Lingayats reject the authority of Brahmans and the inspiration of
the Vedas, and deny the efficacy of saciifices and srdddhas They
profess the Saiva faith in its idealistic form, accepting as their principal
authority a Saiva commentary on the Vedanta Sutras They contend
that the goal of karma or performance of ceiemonies is twofold — the
attainment of svarga 01 eternal heavenly bliss, and the attainment of
judna 01 heavenly wisdom The former is the aim of Brahman
observances ; the latter, lesulting in union with the deity, is the
summiim bonum of the Lingayats

The Lingayat sect in its present form dates from about 1160, a little
more than forty years after the establishment of the Vaishnava faith
and the ousting of the Jains in Mysore by Ramanujacharya Its
institution is attributed to Basava, prime minister of the Kalachuri
king Bijjala, who succeeded the Chalukyas and ruled at Kalyani (in
the Nizam’s Dominions) from 1155 to 1167. Basava (a vernacular form
of the Sanskrit vrishabha^ ‘ bull ’) was supposed to be an incarnation

20Z

MYSORE STATE

of Siva’b bull Nandi, sent to the eaith to levive the Saiva leligion.
He was the son of an Aiadhya Brahman, a native of Bagevadi in
Bijapui District. He lefused to be invested with the sacred thiead,
01 to ackno\\ ledge any but Siva, and incuiicd the hostiht} of the
Biahmans He letired foi some time to Sangariiesvaia, wheie he Avas
instiucted in the tenets of the Vlia Saiva faith Eventually he went
to Kalyani, Avheie the king Bijjala, Avho Avas a Jain, mairied his
beautiful sister and made him piime iiiinister. This position of
influence enabled him to piopagate his religious system Meanwhile,
a sistei who was one of his first disciples had given birth to Channa
Basava, supposed to be an incarnation of Siva’s son Shanmukha, and
he and his uncle are regaided as joint founders of the sect. The
Basava Puiana and Channa Basava Puiana, wiitten in Hala Kannada,
though not of the oldest form, containing miiaculous stories of Saiva
gurus and saints, are among their chief sacred books. Basava’s liberal
use of the public funds foi the support of Jangama priests aioused the
king’s suspicions, and he thoughtlessly oideied two pious Lingayats
to be blinded, which led to his own assassination. Basava and Channa
Basava fled from the vengeance of his son, and aie said to have been
absorbed into the god The lefoimed faith spiead rapidh, supeisedmg
that of the Jains; and accoiding to tradition, within sixty yeais of
Basava’s death, oi by 1228, it was embraced from Ulavi, ncai Goa, to
Sholapui, and fiom Balehalli (in Kadur District) to Sivaganga (Banga-
loie District). It was a State lehgion of Mysoie from 1350 to 1610,
and especially of the Keladi, Ikkeri, or Bednur kingdom from 1550
to 1763, as well as of various neighbouring piincipalities. Since the
decline of the Jams, the Lingayats have been pieseivers and cultivatois
of the Kanarese language

The sect Avas originally leciuited fiom all castes, and obseivances
ot caste, pilgrimage, fasts, and penance Avere 1 ejected. Basava taught
that all holiness consisted in regard for thiee things, guru^ hngain^ and
langiifn — the guide, the image, and the fellow religionist But caste
distinctions are maintained in legaid to social matters, such as mtei-
mairiage The iingam is tied to an infant at biith, must always be
Avorn to the end of life, and is buried A\ith the dead body. At a
leasonable age the child is initiated by the guru into the doctrines of
the faith All are rigid vegetaiians Girls are mairied before puberty.
Widows do not marry again. The dead are buiied The daily ritual
consists of Saiva rites, and it may be stated that Iingam worship, in
both act and symbol, is absolutely free from anything indecorous
Five spiritual thrones or simhasanas were originally established .
namely, at Balehalli (Kadur District), Ujjain, KasI (Benares), Srisailam
(Kurnool District), and Kedarnath (in the Himalayas). Mathis still exist
in these places and exercise juiisdiction over their lespective spheres.

POPULATION

203

The Lingayats are a peaceful and intelligent community, chiefly
engaged m trade and agricultuie. In commeice they occupy a veiy
prominent place, and many aie now taking advantage of the facilities
for higher education and qualifying for the professions.

The Brahmans (190,050) are divided among four sects: namely,
Smartas, who form 63 per cent.; Madhvas, 23 per cent.; Srivaishnavas,
10 per cent.; and Bhagavatas, 4 per cent. Smartas are followers of the
and hold the Advaita doctrine. Their chief deity is Siva, and
the sect was founded by Sankaracharya in the eighth century. Their
g^mi IS the head of the math established by him at Sringeri (Kadur
District), who is styled the Jagad Guru, They are distinguished by
three parallel horizontal lines of sandal paste 01 cow-dung ashes on the
forehead, with a round led spot in the centre. The Madhvas are
named after then foundei Madhvacharya, who lived m South Kanaia
in the thirteenth century. They especially worship Vishnu, and hold
the Dvaita doctiine Their guilts aie at Nanjangud, Hole-Naisipui,
and Sosile. They weai a black perpendicular line from the junction
of the eyebrows to the top of the forehead, with a dot m the centie.
The Srivaishnavas woiship Vishnu as identified with his consort Sri,
and hold the Visishtadvaita doctrine. The sect was founded by
Ramanujachaiya early in the twelfth century There are two branches
the Vadagalai (‘ northerners ’), who form two-thirds, and adhere to the
sacred texts in Sanskrit , and the Tengalai (‘ southerners ’), who foim
one-third, and have then sacred texts in Tamil. Their maik is a trident
on the forehead, the centre line being yellow or red and the two outei
ones white. The Tengalai continue the central line of the trident in
white for some distance down the nose. The Bhagavatas are probably
a very ancient sect. They are classed with Smartas, but chiefly
worship Vishnu, and wear Vaishnava perpendicular marks. Nearly all
the Brahmans in Mysore belong to the Pancha Dravida or ‘ five tribes
of the south.’

The Satani (22,378) aie the next most numerous religious sect.
They are regarded as priests by the Holeya and other inferioi castes,
and themselves have the chiefs of the Srivaishnava Brahmans and
Sannyasis as their gurus. They are votaries of Vishnu, especially in
the form of Krishna, and are followers of Chaitanya. As a rule they
are engaged in the service of Vaishnava temples, and are flower-
gatherers, torch-bearers, and strolling musicians. They call themselves
Vaishnavas, the Baisnabs of Bengal.

Of Musalmans the majority are Sunnis, very few being Shiahs
There are thirteen Musalman classes, the most numerous of which are
Shaikh (178,625), Saiyid (42,468), Pathan (41,156), Mughal (8,241),
Labbai (6,908), and Pinjari (4,558). The first four are mostly in the
army, police, and other Government seivice, but many are merchants

VOL. xvni. o

204

J/VSO/^/i STATE

and tiadeis. The Labbai aic descendants of Auibs and women of the
countiy. They come from Negapatam and othei parts of the Coro-
mandel coast, and speak Tamil. They aie an enteipiising class of
traders, settled in most of the towns, vendors of hardware and other
articles, collectois of hides, and traders in coffee, but they take up
anyluciative business. Some are settled as agricultuiists at Gargeswari
in Mysore Distiict. The Mappilla or Moplah aie of similar origin but
fiom the Malabai coast, and speak Malayalam They are principally
on the coffee plantations in the west At one time there w^ere many
at the Kolai gold-mines. The Pinjaii are cotton-gmners and cleaners ;
other Musalmans as a rule have no intercourse with them. At Channa-
patna and one oi two other places is a sect called Dane, who came
originally from Hyderabad. They believe the Mahdi to have come
and gone, and do not mteimairy with other Musalmans They trade
in silk with the West Coast

Christians at the Census of 1901 numbered 50,059 namel}, Euro-
peans, 4,753 , Euiasians, 5,721, and native Christians, 39,585. The
first two classes aie mostly in Bangalore and the Kolai Gold Fields,
but they are also scatteied in various paits of the country. Euiopean
coffee-plantei s reside in Kadur and Hassan Districts The principal
Eurasian lural settlement is Whitefield in Bangalore District. The
same Distiict and the Kolar Gold Fields contain the largest numbet
of native Christians. They have increased by 41 6 per cent, since
1891, 01, excluding the Civil and Mihtaiy Station of Bangalore, by 62*8
per cent. The following were the principal denominations returned —

Denomnation

Europeans

Eurasians

Natives

Total

Roman Catholic
Anglican

Methodist .

1,095

2,911

437

2.834

2 280

391

33,687

2,606

1,816

37,616

7,797

2,644

The Roman Catholics increased by 29 per cent, m the decade. As
regards the Anglicans and Methodists, it appears that some belonging
to the latter denomination entered themselves merely as Protestants,
and were thereby included among the former Putting both together,
to rectify the error in some degree, the increase was 25 3 per cent.
The Methodists include Wesleyans and American Methodist Episco-
palians The Roman Catholic diocese of Mysore extends over Mysore,
Coorg, Wynaad, Hosur, and Kollegal. The Bishop resides at Banga-
lore The Anglican churches are in the diocese of the Bishop of
Madras.

Of Christian missions to Mysore, the oldest by far was the Roman
Catholic. So far back as 1325 the Dominicans are said to have com-
menced work m the Hoysala kingdom In 1400 they built a church

POPULA TTOX

at Anekal \ The Vijayanagar Dnvan m T445 is &aid to have
a Christian, and also the \iceioy at Seiingapatam in 1520. In 15S7 the
Franciscans arrived on the scene But it was not till the middle of
the seventeenth century that mfs&ion work was firmly established*
At that period some Jesuit priests from Coimbatore founded the
Kanarese Mission at Satyamangalam, Seringapatam, and other places
m the south. In 1702 two French Jesuits from Vellore founded a
Telugu mission in the east, building chapels at Bangalore, Devanhalli,
Chik-Ballapur, and other places. The suppression of the Jesuit Order
in 1773 was a severe check, and in the time of Tipu all the churches
and chapels were razed to the giound, except one at Giama near
Hassan, and one at Seringapatam, the former being preseived by
a Muhammadan officer, and the latter defended by the native Christian
troops under their commander After the fall of Seringapatam in 1799
the work was taken up by the Foreign Missions Society of Pans, and
the Abbe Dubois, who was in the south, was invited to Seringapatam
by the Roman Catholics. He laboured in Mysore for twenty-two
yeais, adopting the natne dress and mode of living. He was highly
respected by the people, who treated him as a Brahman, and he
became well-known from his work on Htndtc Man 7 iers^ the manu-
script of which was bought by the British Government He was the
foundei of the church at Mysore, and of the Christian agricultural
community of Sathalli near Hassan, and is said to have intioduced
vaccination into the State The East India Company gave him a
pension, and he died in France in 1848 at the age of eighty-three
In 1846 a Vicar Apostolic was appointed, and in 1887 Mysore was
made a Bishopiic. The Roman Catholics have 98 places of worship
in the State. At Bangalore they maintain a high-grade college and
college classes for girls, a convent with schools, a well-equipped
hospital, orphanages and Magdalen asylum, and a Home for the
Aged under the Little Sisters of the Poor ; and at Mysore there are a
convent and various schools. Agricultural farms for famine orphans
have been formed in the taluks bordering on Bangalore.

Of Protestant missions the first to the Kanarese people was that at
Bellary established by the London Missionary Society, which in 1820
was extended to Bangaloie. The first dictionaries of the language,
and the first translation of the Bible into the vernacular, together with
the first casting of Kanarese type for their publication, were the work
of this mission. They were also the pioneers of native female educa-
tion, in 1840. They have Kanarese and Tamil churches at Bangalore,

^ An old inscription, sin mounted by a cross, has been found there relating to
the kimibdra am or potters’ dam,

- The best and most authentic edition of this work wa^ published at Oxford in 1897,
edited by the late H.K. Beauchamp

o 2

2o6

MYSORE STATE

a high schoolj and various schools foi giilb The out-stalions aie to
the east and north of Bangalore, the chief being at Chik-Ballapur.
The Wesleyan Mission began work in 1822, but only in Tamil, in the
cantonment of Bangalore. Their Kanarese mission was commenced
in 1835. In 1848 a great impetus was given to the publication of
vernacular literature by their establishment of a printing press at
Bangalore, and the vast improvements introduced m Kanarese type
The mission has now about forty ciicuits in Bangaloie, Mysore, and
the principal towns, with high schools at those cities, and numeious
vernaculai schools all ovei the country, besides hospitals for women
and children at Mysore and Hassan They also have some industrial
schools, and issue a Kanarese newspaper and magazine The Chuich
of England has a native S P.G. mission at Bangaloie, taken over in
1826 from the Danish Lutherans, by whom it had been begun a few years
earlier; and the Zanana Mission of the Church has a large Gosha
hospital (for women) theie, with a branch hospital at Channapatna,
and a station at Mysore city The Ameiican Methodist Episcopal
Church began woik in 1880, and has places of worship and schools in
Bangalore, chiefly for Eurasians, and a native industiial school at
Kolar. A Leipzig Lutheran mission was established at Bangalore on
a small scale in 1873 , and there is a small Faith mission at Malavalli
in Mysore District

The occupations of the people have been returned under eight mam
classes. Of these the most important aie : pasture and agriculture,
which support 68 per cent, of the population, preparation and supply
of material substances, 1 1 per cent. ; and unskilled labour not agri-
cultural, 9 per cent. Actual workers number 1,875,371 (males
1,485,313, females 390,058), and dependents number 3,664,028 (males
1,311,711, females 2,352,317).

Ragi {Eleusine coracana) is the staple food of all the lower orders
and labouring classes. The flour is made into a kind of pudding
called hittu, and into cakes, which are fried in oil. Of other millets,
jola {Sorghum vulgare) is the most commonly eaten, especially in the
north Puddings and cakes are made of the flour, and it is also boiled
whole to eat with curry. Of pulses, avare {Dohchos Lablab) is the
favourite, and is used in curries. Rice (Oryza sativa) of many varieties
IS the principal food of Brahmans and the higher classes.

White or coloured cotton stuffs of stout texture supply the principal
dress of the people, with a woollen kambli or blanket as an outer
covering for the night or a protection against cold or damp. Brahmans
go bare-headed, the head being shaved all except the tuft at the crown,
and most Hindus observe the same practice. The moustache is the
only hair worn on the face. The dhotra^ a thin sheet, coveis the
lower limbs, one end being gathered into folds in front and the other

POPULATION

207

passed between the legs and tucked in at the waist behind. A similar
garment is thrown over the shoulders. A bright magenta worsted cap
and a scailet, gieen, or blue blanket are often worn in the early
morning or on a journey. At office, Brahmans wear a tuiban and
a long coat, either woollen or cotton Students weai a sort of smoking-
cap instead of a tuiban The ryots are generally content with a turban
and a kambli^ with commonly a short paii of drawers. When not at
work they often wear a blouse or short smock-frock.

The dress of the women is graceful and becoming. A tight-fitting
short bodice is universally worn, leaving the arms, neck, throat, and
middle bare, the two ends being tied in a knot in front It is generally
of a gay colour, or variegated with borders and gussets of contrasting
tints, which set off the figure to advantage. In the colder tracts, to the
west, a somewhat loose jacket, coveiing all the uppei part of the body
and the arms, is worn instead The shire or sdri^ a long sheet,
ordinarily dark blue or a dull red with yellow borders, is wrapped
round the lower part of the body, coming down to the ankles. One
end IS gathered into a large bunch of folds in front, while the other,
passed across the bosom and over the head, hangs freely over the
right shoulder. In the west it is tied there in a knot. Brahman
women pass the lower end of the cloth between the legs and tuck
it in at the waist behind, which leaves the limbs more free. Their
heads too are not covered, the hair being gatheied into one large plait,
which hangs straight down the back, very effectively decorated at the
crown and at different points with richly chased circular golden cauls
or bosses. Vaisya women are similarly dressed, but often with less
good taste. They smear themselves with saffron to pioduce a fair
or yellow tint, and not only on their cheeks but also over their aims
and legs This practice, so common among the trading class, is by no
means attractive, nor is the habit of blackening the teeth, adopted by
married women, more pleasing to European ideas. Many fair women
are elaborately tattooed on the arms. Sudra women generally gather
the hair into a chignon or bunch behind, stuffed out with a bunch
of wool, and run a large pin through, with an ornamental silver head,
which is rathei becoming. In the Malnad the women often arrange
the back hair in a very picturesque manner, with a plait of the cream-
white ketaki flower (Pandanus odoratisu^nus), or with orchid blossoms
or pink cluster-roses Ornaments aie commonly worn by all classes
in the ears and nose, and on the arms, with rings on the fingers and
toes, and as many and costly necklets and chains round the neck
as means will allow. Chains frequently connect the upper rim of the
ear with the ornamental pm m the back hair, and have a pretty effect.
The richer Brahman and other girls wear silvei anklets, often of a very
pondeious make, which are by no means elegant. A silver zone

20 &

MYSORE STATE

cla&ped in front is a common aiticle of attiie among all but the pooiei
ANomen, and gi\es a pleasing finish to the costume The only maiked
difference is in the dress of Lambani women, already described in
ti eating of them

In Manjarabad the diess of the headmen is usually a black kambli
or blanket, passed round the body and fastened ovei the left shoulder,
leaving the right aim free. The \^aist is girded with a similai article,
01 with a cloth, generally dark blue with a white stripe The turbans
are mostly white, or daik blue with a nariow gold edging The
labouieis have a similai dress of coarser mateiial, and usually weai
a leathern skull-cap. All classes cairy a big knife, fastened to the
girdle behind.

The dress of Muhammadan males diffeis fiom that of the Hindus
chiefly in cut and colour, and in the wearing of long loose diaweis
But for undress a piece of dark plaided stuff is worn like the dhoira.
They shave the head completely, but letain all the hair of the face.
A skull-cap IS worn, ovei which the turban is tied in full dress. The
women wear a colouied petticoat and bodice, with a large white sheet
enveloping the head and the whole person, and pulled also o\ei the
face.

The highei caste Hindus weai leathern slippeis, curled up at the
toe and turned down at the heel, the labouring classes wear heavy
sandals, with wooden or leathern soles and leathern straps Muham-
madans also wear the slipper, but smaller, and frequently a very
substantial big shoe, covering the whole foot. Women are never shod,
except occasionally on a jouiney, oi in veiy stony places, when the)
sometimes wear sandals

Religious mendicants appear in a vaiiety of grotesque and harlequin
costumes, with haii unshoin. But garments dyed with red ochie oi
saffron ai-e the commonest indications of a sacied calling

The dwellings of the people are generally of mud, one-stoieyed
and low, with few, if any, openings outwards except the door, but
possessed of courtyards within, surrounded with verandas and open
to the sky. In the better class of houses these are well paved and
drained, wdiile the wooden pillars are elaborately caived or painted
The huts of the outcaste and poorer classes are thatched , but the
houses of the higher orders are covered with either terraced or tiled
roofs, the latter more especially in the west, where the rainfall is heavy.

Animal fights, between rams, cocks, and quails, are popular Com-
panies of tumblers, jugglers, snake-chaimers, &c., wander about and
earn a living. Theatrical performances aie also well patronized.
In the south they take place in the open at a ceitain season in all the
large villages, the performers being the villagers themselves. The
Hindu festivals most generally observed by all sects aie the Holi and

JGRICULTUA^E

20y

the Dasara, which lebpectively maik the beasoiib of the \eiiial and
autumnal equinox^ the Pongal, at the time of the winter solstice,
a sort of harvest festival , the Dipavali or feast of lights ; and the
Yugadi or new year’s day. The Sivaratn, or watch-night of fasting,
IS kept by all adherents of Siva. The Muhammadans keep the
Ramzan, when thirty days of abstinence are observed, and also the
Muharram, properly a season of lamentation, but generally kept here
as a festival. Their other principal public feasts are the Bakr-Id and
Shab-i-barat.

Among respectable Hindus a man geneially has three names — the
fiist being that of his village oi the place of origin of his family,
the second his personal name , and the third that of his caste or sect.
It IS a common custom to name the eldest son after his paternal grand-
father, and the next after his maternal grandfather, but only if they
are dead If they are living, then after the great-uncle or other corre-
sponding neai relative who is dead. Girls are similarly named after
the female grandpaients, &c. But if a child was born in response
to a religious vow, it is named after the god who is supposed to have
granted it. Muhammadans are named after the apostle under whose
star they are born, or from one of the ninety-nine sacred names, to
which IS added the sect Girls are named after the wives or female
relatives of the apostles.

Agricultuie is chiefly dependent on the rams If they are sufficient
and seasonable, it prospers , but such a favourable conjuncture is only
occasional. ‘ Wet crops ’ iirigated from river channels .
or perennial wells, and products of the self-sustaining
black soil, are therefore least affected by vicissitudes of the seasons

The soils in Mysore vaiy from black cotton to light sandy loam.
A red-coloured loam, oi clay loam, piedominates. Differing from
other soils of India, they aie generally deficient in phosphoric acid,
most of them containing less than o*i pei cent, and the average con-
taining barely 0*05 pei cent. The percentage of potash is much
higher, averaging three or four times that of phosphoric acid. In the
hilly virgin-forest region m the west of the State, where coffee is largely
grown, the percentage of nitrogen is very high, averaging moie than
o 2 per cent, in the surface soil and nearly 0-15 per cent, in the
second foot. In the eastern portion of the State, where the land has
been cultivated a long time, less nitrogen is found. The surface is
generally undulating (though flat m some parts and very hilly in others),
here and there broken up by rocky hills and gravelly ridges. The
annual rainfall varies from about 200 inches in the Western Ghats
to about 25 or 30 inches in the eastern part of the State. Excepting
rice, coffee, cardamoms, pepper, areca-nut, and betel-leaf, very little
cultivation is earned on in the fofest legion of lieavy rainfall in the

210

MYSORE STATE

extreme west The other part of the State, with a lamfall varying from
about 20 to 6o inches, grows principally ragi, jo/a, various pulses and
oil plants on the ‘ dry ’ lands, with cotton and tobacco in some localities,
and principally rice and sugar-cane on the irrigated fields ^

The population engaged in and dependent on agriculture, according
to the Census of 1901, is 3,657,462, or 66 per cent, of the total Of
these, 951,056 males and 179,876 females are actual workers, and
941,867 males and 1,584,663 females are dependents.

The staple food-grams aie . rdgt {Eleiisine coracana\ lice (Oryza
sativa),joIa {^Sorghum vulgar e\ other millets {Famcum), gram {Dohchos
bifloriis\ and other pulses. Oilseeds include gingelly {Sesajnu??i) and
castor {Rtcimis) ; the chief fibres aie cotton and i-(2«-hemp ; among
spices may be mentioned chilli or capsicum, ginger, coriander, cumin
seed, &c ; and among miscellaneous crops — tobacco, mustard, onions,
garlic, &c

The months for sowing the principal crops are June and July, and
Novembei is the general harvest time , but the pulses avare and
togari^ which are sown along with rdgi^ ripen two or three months
later. Horse-gram is sown in October or November, and ripens in
three months. Of rice there are two crops, the Kartika fasal^ or kdr^
maturing in October or November, and the Vaisakha fasal^ or hain^
maturing in April or May The ordinary sugar-cane is planted about
April and takes twelve months to mature. Other kinds are planted in
August or February, and require fourteen months. Cotton is sown in
June and ripens in six months, continuing to yield for four months, and
the second year’s crop is better.

Kti 7 nri 01 shifting forest cultivation is practised only by wild hill
tribes in the west and south, and is permitted in some parts under
certain restrictions Undei this system jungle is burnt down and seed
planted in the ashes.

Agiicultuial implements m general are such as have been in use for
ages The principal new appliance that has been to some extent
adopted is an iron mill for expressing the juice of the sugar-cane,
which has in many parts replaced the old cumbrous apparatus.

Fruit and vegetable production has received special attention in the
neighbourhood of Bangalore Apples, strawberries, potatoes, peas, and
cauliflowers may be mentioned among European products that are well
established Of native fruits, the grafted mango is largely cultivated.
Areca-nuts, coco-nuts, and plantains are general in irrigated land. The
best areca-nuts are a special production of Nagar and the moist west.
Coco-nuts are grown without irrigation in the central parts of the State,
and the diied kernels are an article of export. A horticultural gaiden

^ This paragraph was contiibiited by Di A Lehmann, Agncultnial Chemist to the
Government of Mysoie.

AGRICULTURE

2 ri

IS maintained by the State in the Lai Bagh at Bangalore, and an exotic
fruit garden at Nandidroog Native florists do a good business in
plants.

To the Agricultuial depaitment are attached an agricultural chemist,
with assistants, a mycologist, and an entomologist A well-equipped
chemical laboratory has been fitted up at Bangalore, wheie analyses
are made of soils, of the composition of manures and fertilizers, of the
quality of special products like coffee, and of roots, bulbs, and other
wild edibles that may be of use as food in time of famine. Prevalent
insect pests and plant diseases are investigated with a view to devising
remedies. Plot experiments aie being conducted in the cultivation of
sugai-cane, rdgi^ sweet potatoes, and ground-nuts A plant-house for pot
culture IS being erected. An experimental farm has been formed near
Bangalore, where ‘wet’ and ‘ dry crops ’ are being raised. In the Lai
Bagh garden at Bangalore rubber, fibre, and cotton plants are receiving
attention. At the Kunigal stud farm special kinds of iice are being
tried Arrangements have been made for imparting instruction in
practical agriculture at the normal school in Mysore and at eight other
State schools, and in sericulture at Mr. Tata’s silk farm in Bangalore.
Moreover, a few model holdings in each taluk are being selected by
the amalddrs^ belonging to intelligent tenants who are willing to
cultivate them on improved methods according to expert advice
Agricultural shows are to be held at the District head-quarters and
prizes awarded by the State

Loans for land improxement during the thiiteen years ending 1903-4
amounted to a total of i-6 lakhs. In the same peiiod 7*1 lakhs was
also advanced for 3,068 irrigation wells, of which 2,212 were completed
For sdguvali kattes 01 cultivation embankments Rs. 11,000 was ad-
vanced

There were fifty -nine agricultuial banks in 1904, of which twenty-one
were reported to be working satisfactorily, but taken altogether they
have not been a success. Two banks intended for the benefit of
native coffee-planters had received loans up to nearly 9 lakhs, of
which moie than 3^ lakhs was outstanding. They have since been
closed, and individual contracts for repayment made with the estates
which had received loans The advances to the lemaimng banks had
amounted to lakhs, of which i lakh was recovered. Owing to lax
management thirteen banks have had the advances made to them
recalled The loans granted by the banks, exclusive of renewals,
amounted to io| lakhs, of which 7 lakhs was used to liquidate previous
debts, and the rest for agricultural puiposes. The balance due to the
State in 1904 for loans and interest wab 13 lakhs.

The cultivatoib aic foi the most pait in debt, but not heavily, then
liabilities generally ranging between Rs. 50 and Rs. 100 In villages

<! 12

MVSOJ^E STATE

the creditors are, as a rule, themselves agiicultuiists, but in towns they
die more often money-lendeis The late of interest on private loans
to agiiculturists varies. In some places in the Malnad the rate till
lecently langed between 24 and 36 per cent In other tiacts it used
to be 18 per cent. The rate is now eveiywhere lower, the minimum
being 12 and the maximum 18 pei cent A Co-opeiative Societies
Regulation was passed in 1905, fiom which good is anticipated,

SlATISlICS OF AgRICOLTURF

(Areas m square miles)

A\eiagf,
188 r-go

A\ era{fe,
1891-1900

1900-1

1903-4

Total area shown in village

27,248

papeis

19,706

27,270

Total uncultivated area

17,404

■ 8,067

17,588

Cultivable but not cultivated

4,700

2,891

4,321

3.S71

Uncultivable

12,704

11,155

13,736

13,717

Total cultivated area

8 261

8,97s

9,191

9,682

Iingated from canals .

137'

166

175

,, ,, wells and tanks

773 '-

878

992

,, „ other sources .

347

314

406

Total irrigated area

1,100

1,497

1,358

1,573

Unirngaled area .

4.644

7 » 33 i

7.833

8,109

Cropped area.

. ,

3,746

3,293

3,499

Kice

945

1,107

i,ti8

1,239

Other iood-giams and pulses

5,548!

2,897

3,682

3,752

Oilseeds

280

45 S

516

543

Sugar-cane

4 .n

Cotton .

«7

109

Other fibres

Coffee

203

209

199

1 95

Tobacco

Miscellaneous

291

453

581

627

Total area cropped

7,40s

9;039

9,58^

10,073

Area double ciopped

*237

391

39 ^

Note —T he principal ciops laised by ineaiis ol irngfation aic rice, sugfat-canc,
and wheat * Only nine yeais*’ average t Includes

Ihe AinuL Mahal is the principal cattle-bi ceding establishment
Its head-quarters are at Hunsur, and grating-grounds called kdvals
are reserved for its use in different paits of the countiy. In 1903-4,
with 9,686 head of cattle, the births were 42*5 per cent, on the average
number of breeding cows, and the deaths 9-3 pei cent, on the total
stock. The sales, including 150 young bullocks to the Madras
Transpoit D6p6t at the usual rate of Rs. 50 each, realized an average
of Rs 36 per head. Amrit MahM bullocks are famed for their pluck
and endurance, being as su pei 101 to others as thoroughbreds among
horses. The best breed is the Hallikar. The ordinary cattle are of
the Madeb\aian-betta and Kankanhalli bieeds, both named fiom places
m the south-east of the State. Amrit Mahal bulls aie stationed by

AGRICULTURE

?r3

Guveriiinent in vaiious paitb foi impioving the bleed ot cattle used by
the ryots. Six Amiit Mahal cows were sent to the Chin Hills m Northern
Burma to be crossed with fmt/ian bulls (Bos frontalis), I^arge cattle
fairs are held at Nandi, at the ghat north of Dod-Ballapur, at Sante-
maianhalli, and othei places An oidinary pair of plough bullocks
costs from Rs 30 to Rs 50 or more ; superior trotting and draught-
bullocks, Rs. 70 to Rs. 200 01 more Buffaloes aie extensively used foi
supplying milk, and foi canying manuie and ploughing in heavy land.

Sheep and goats were kept on faims under the Amrit Mahal ddrogas.
In 1902, with 1,694 head, theie were 308 births and "294 deaths
Owing to similar pooi lesults ovei a senes of yeais, the flocks weie
then sold, only 257 sheep of x\ustralian and Kashmli breeds being
retained I'hc oidinaiy counti} sheep 'are the Kurubar. They aie
shorn twice a yeai, and the wool is made into lOUgh kamhlis Fine
fighting rams are produced Sheep aie folded on fields foi the sake of
their dung, which is highly valued.

The stud faim is at Kunigal. In 1904 theie weie five stallions, 81
brood mares, and 200 foals, of w'^hich 35 were born in the yeai. Good
native cavalry remounts are produced. From Kathiawar thiee wild
asses (Equus hemto 7 ius) were obtained m order to breed a larger type
of donkeys in the State, and foi mule-breeding, for which theie is a
farm near Devanhalh.

The pimcipal cattle diseases aic anthrax, foot-and-mouth disease,
malignant catarrh, and lung diseases. Rinderpest has also been
known There is a civil veteimaiy officei only foi Bangaloie , but the
natives have their own leniedies and methods of ticatment, among
which cautery or branding with hot iron is very common.

The souices of iirigation aie channels diawn fiom dams on the
riveis, besides tanks and wells The most impoitant of the iivei
channels are in the south of the State, connected with the Cauverv
and its tributaries Most of them were originally constructed centuries
ago, but have been impioved and extended. The water is let out
according to the needs of the iice or sugar-cane crops, and confined to
the proper seasons foi them. To put an end to complaints of unequal
distribution, the management of the river channels in the irrigation
season was in 1888 put under the amalddrs of the taluks through
which they run, and the hot-season supply to sugai-cane and garden
tracts was arranged to be given at fixed periods, in consultation with the
Deputy-Commissioners concerned. Theie is no separate water rate,
but the fixed assessment includes the full value imparted by soil and
water combined The value of the channel watei-supply is determined
on the basis of quantity, duration, and facility, according to the
established capacity of each channel. The supply of watei fiom tanks
IS similarl} regulated The leceipLs fiom river-fed channels in 1903-4

214

MYSORE STATE

amounted to 6-| lakhs, and the net piofits to 5 lakhs. The best wells
are those throughout the north-east, fed by talpargis or spring-heads.
The water is raised by either the yata 01 the kapile. The former, also
known as ptcoitah^ is a lever with an iron bucket attached at the watei
end by a bamboo rod. The lever is weighted at one end with stones,
or else raised and depressed by a man standing on it near the fulcrum
post. The kapile has an inclined plane or ramp, down which bullocks
diaw a stout rope attached to a large leathern bucket

A very laige irrigation woik is under construction at Man Kanave
on the Vedavati Other prominent recent works for the same purpose
aie Bora Kanave, Mavatur tank, Srinivasa Sagara, &c. Various projects
in different tiacts have been examined.

The general system of land tenure is ryotwdn^ under which small
separate holdings are held direct from government. There is also
a certain number of indvi tenures, which are wholly

Rent, wages, partially revenue free. In 1904 there were
and prices. r j ^ ? -r

965,440 ryohvdri holdings, with an average area

of 7*n acres, and an aveiage assessment of Rs. 9-6-1 The indm
holdings numbered 84,548, with an average area of 20-8 acres, and
an average assessment of Rs. 6-5-0. A special class aie the lease-
holders of gold-mines, whose holdings numbered 44, with an aver-
age area in each estate of 912*5 acres, assessed at an average of
Rs 439-6-7-

The sum payable by the cultivator, which is revenue rather than
rent, is determined mainly by the class of soil and kind of cultiva-
tion. After the revenue survey, the settlement of this point is effected
on the following system Nine classes of soil are recognized, and
all the land is divided into ‘ dry,’ ‘ wet,’ and ‘ garden ’ land In the
two latter, in addition to soil classification, the water-supply is taken
into consideration, and its degree of permanency 01 otherwise regu-
lates the class to which it is referred In the case of gaidens irrigated
by wells, in addition to the classification of soil, the area of land
under each, and the distance of the garden from the village, as
affecting the cost of manuring, &c., are carefully ascertained Vil-
lages are grouped according to their respective advantages of climate,
markets, communications, and the agricultural skill and actual con-
dition of the cultivators. The maximum rates for each class of
cultivation are then determined by leference to the nature and effects
of past management of the taluk for twenty years, and by examina-
tion and comparison of the annual settlements of previous years.
These having been fixed, the inferior rates are at once deduced
fiom the relative values laid down m the classification scales.

Of measures intended to impiove the position of the cultivators
and to relieve them from indebtedness, one of the pimcipal has

RENT, IFAGES, AND TRICES

2T5

been the coliection of revenue in instalments at such times as enable
the cultivator to sell his crop first. Theie is also the lecent Co-
operative Societies Regulation. Taking the natuial divisions of east
and west, the aveiage rate per acre in the foimei in 1904 was Rs 1-7--3,
the maximum and minimum being Rs. 2-1-11 and R 0-10-8 ^ in
the latter, the average was Rs 1-13-1, the maximum and minimum
being Rs. 1-14-1 and Rs. 1-12-5. The batai system, or payment
of revenue by division of the ciop, which foimerly pi evaded, has
been entirely replaced by cash lates.

The daily wages foi skilled labour vaiy in different parts from
6 annas to Rs. 1-8, and for unskilled laboui from 2 annas to 8
annas While the lattei has lemained at about the same figure as
regards the minimum, with a tendency to rise, the former has in-
creased in the last twenty years from 50 to 100 per cent Payment
in kind is becoming less common, probably owing to the influence
of railways, mining and other industries, and large public works, the
labourer being less tied down to single localities, and having gieatei
facilities to travel at a cheap rate

The following table relating to the staple food-grams and salt shows
that there has been a general rise in prices, except in the case of
salt, which is cheaper • —

1 Prices (seers pei rupee)

In 1880

Average for lo years ending

1890

1900

Ragi

J East
j West

1 4084

( 36.25

< 34 38

30 40

33 23

Rice (common)

\ East

1 West

\ 15-4

5 13-63

( 14-61

10*60

ti.66

Jola

5 East

1 West

! ■

) 24.53

( 24 28

Gram (Bengal)

i East
' j West

1 14.46

\ 13-51
( 1459

it.29

Ji 72

Salt .

i East 1
i West

j 8.98

J 10.42

1 10.06

1 10.00

Taking five-year penods from 1876, the percentage of increase in
the letail prices of these grains on those for 1871-5 at the central
marts of Bangalore and Mysore is shown m the following table : —

Bangalore.

Mysore

Ragi

Rice

Jola

Gram

Ragt

Rice

Jola

Gram

1876-80

123

1881-5

— 12

— 20

1886-90

“ 5

136

1891-5

II5

173

1896-1900

149

107

34 '

210

MYSORE STATE

2 r6

The initial inciease was due to the famine of 1876-8 A gieat
diop succeeded till 1895, owing at fiist to good seasons and dimin-
ished population, and latci to freei means of communication also.
In the last period prices have been using, owing probably both to
short crops locally and to the demand from famine-stricken parts else-
where, especially in Western India

The general condition of the people has been steadily improving
since the middle of the last century, and has made special progress
in the past thirty yeais, as shown by the rise in both wages and
prices, and in the standard of living. A moderate assessment has
lelieved the cultivators, while the easy means of communication pro-
vided by roads and 1 ail ways, together with freer postal facilities, have
stimulated the enterpiise of tiadeis and benefited all classes. Tlie
prosecution of extensive public works has given labouiers and artisans
ready employment, and public servants have had exceptional oppor-
tunities of using to good positions On the other hand, there have
been bad seasons in ceitain years, and in 1876-8 a great famine.
Cofiee-plantmg has been almost ruined by the fall in prices Cai da-
moms have suffeied from the same cause, and areca-nuts have been
injuied on a laige scale by disease. Plague has also in recent yeais
interfered greatly with the well-being of the people. But education
and medical aid are now brought to the doors of all classes, and
m important centres the population aie better housed, bettei clothed,
and better fed than in the generations past.

The area of State forests, which are ‘reserved^ and aie undei
a Conservator of Forests, was 2,094 square miles in 1904, besides
Forests ^bout 1,400 square miles of Ghat forests and kans.
The unreserved or District forests, which are under
the revenue authorities, covered 612 square miles. The forests may
be divided into evergreen and deciduous. The evergreen forests
are confined to the Western Ghats and the country below them on
the east, extending from the north of Sagar to the south of Manjar-
abad, m a belt from 6 to 14 miles wide. On all sides may be
seen magnificent trees with clear stems of 80 to 100 feet to the
first branch. Poon-spar {Calophyllum tomentosuvi)^ ebony (JDiospyros
Ebemmi)^ and wild jack {Ariocarpus hirsuta) are some of the trees.
East of this is a mixed belt, from 10 to 45 miles wide, extending
from the north of Sorab to the south of Gundalpet. It contains
the finest timber-producing forests, and is bordered on the east with
much sandal-wood. It also comprises the best areca-nut and carda-
mom gardens, and the coifee plantations of Koppa and Manjarabad
Its junction with the evergreen belt on the west is marked by splendid
7 iandi {Lagerstroeviia lanceolata) and black-wood {Dalbergia latifohd).
Teak, satin-wood, sissu^ iron wood, and other trees abound m it, as

FORESTS

217

well as bamboo. East again is the iliy belt, coveiing the greatei
part of the State Many of the trees found m the mixed belt lecur
here, but they arc smaller, and the tree vegetation is generally in-
ferior. Besides different kinds of Fictcs^ the mango, tamarind, and
jdmun^ the ippe {Bassia lattfolia\ and jack {Artocarpus mtegrifohd)
grow well here Acacias, the wood-apple, bael-ixee, and hoige {Eon-
gmnia glabra) also thrive The bastard date-palm {Phoenix sylvestns)
grows in the western part, and the dwarf date-palm {Phoenix farimferd)
in the centre and west

There are twelve kinds of ‘reserved' tiees sandal-wood {Santalum
album\ teak {Teciona grandis), poon {Calophyllum tomeniosim)^ black-
wood {Dalhergta Jatifolia\ ho 7 ine {Pterocarpus Afa}supiiipi\ lac or
jdldri { Vatica laccifera), nandi {Lagerstroemia lanceolata), wild jack 01
hess7Va {Artocarpus hirsnta), kdrachi or kammar {Hardwtckia binata\
bill math {Terminaha Arjima\ kari math {Terminalia tomeniosa\
and ebony {Diospyros Ebenuni)

The principal articles of minoi forest produce are gall-nuts, tanning
bark from tangadi {Casda auriculata\ and lac Also soap-nuts, gum,
honey, beeswax, &c.

Elephants are employed in dragging timbei fiom inaccessible places,
and logs are floated down the western streams and channels. Large-
sized timber is sold at the regular timber depdts, and smalh sized
timber at tempoiary dep6ts opened in con\enient places. Bamboos
are cut by licence. Sandal-wood, which is a State monopoly and
the principal item of forest revenue, is sold at the various sandal-
wood depdts.

Fuel reserves are formed m the District forests, and by special
plantations, often of casuanna. Local needs are also provided for
by the formation of village forests. Grazing is permitted to a cer-
tain extent on a system of licences ; but in times of scarcity the
State forests are thrown open where necessary.

Working-plans are being prepared for all the most important forests.
Fire preventive measuies have been extended over 1,823 square miles,
of which 1,653 were successfully protected m 1903-4.

The forest revenue, expenditure, and surplus have been as follows : —

Average,

1882-90

Average,

1891-1900

1900-1

1903-4

Revenue
Expenditure .
Surplus .

8,96,847

3,16,215

5,80,633

Rs.

13,27,064

5,26,374

8,00,690

12,48,083

3 , 78,322

8,69,861

15,90,761

5 ,i 8 , 13 I

10,72,640

Gold is the only mineral raised from mines. These were being
worked by thirteen companies in 1904, of which five paid dividends,

2t8

MYSORE STATE

three pioduced gold but paid no dividend, and the lesl were non-
producers. All but thiee, which aic included in the non-producing
class, belong to the Kolar Gold Fields. The oie is
treated by nulling and amalgamation, and the tailings
by cyanide Steam power has been replaced since
June, 1902, by electiic powei, generated at the Cauvery Falls, 92 miles
distant. The number of persons employed in the industry in 1903
was 27,355. these, 76 per cent, were Hindus, 18 per cent. Chris-
tians, and 6 pei cent. Muhammadans. The gieat majoiity of the
Hindus weie Holeyas, the otheis being mostly Wokkaligas, Tigalas,
and Woddas. The Christians consisted of 17 per cent. Euiopeans,
22 per cent. Eurasians, and 6r per cent, natives. The amount paid
in wages was 70-3 lakhs, which gives an average earning of Rs. 257
per head per annum. The five dividend-paying companies are the
Mysore, Champion Reef, Ooregum, Nundydroog, and Balaghat. The
nominal capital of all the companies was £2,958,500, and the paid-up
capital £2,683,000, All the gold produced is dispatched to England
jMinerals as yet unworked in the State include a small quantity of
asbestos Iron is smelted 111 seveial places Some manganese has
lately been exported fiom Shimoga District

Quantity \nd Vat.ue of Minerals proouced

Mineials

1891

1901

1904

Weight

Value

Weight

Value

Weight

Value

Gold . oz
Iron tons

Conindnm ,,
Mica . ,,

Salt . ,,

Limestone „

109,643

573

55,777930

30,000

666

530,142

•*'129

3 ;

494

29,062

1,92,30,810

26,120

5>352

240

30,517

1,02,189

607,574

346

745

855

25.085

2,32.31.830

26,530

65.284

2,52,921

Also iron ore, 743 tons

For cotton-weaving the loom is placed over a kind of well or hole,
large enough to contain the lower portion of the machinery, which
IS worked on the pedal principle with the toes, the
ma^a^es. with his legs in a hole. The comb.s

are supported by ropes attached to beams in the
roof, working over pulleys, and stietching down into the well to
the toes of the weaver. In his right hand is the shuttle, w^hich con-
tains the thread, and which, passed rapidly through the spaces created
by the combs, forms the pattern. The pnncipal comb is held hi
the left hand. As the cloth is manufactured, it is wound on the
beam by slightly easing the rope on the right hand and turning
round the lever. In addition to cotton stuffs used for clothing, the

AJ^TS AND MANUFACTURES

219

principal fabrics made are tape for bedsteads, carpets or rugs, tent
cloth, cordage, &c. Steps have recently been taken to introduce
the fly-shuttle; and six weaving-schools for instruction in its use
have been established at Hole-Narsipur, Dod-Ballapur, Chiknayakan-
halli, Molakalmuru, and other places, with carpentry and drawing
classes attached

Silk fabrics of stout texture and excellent designs are made, chiefly
by Patvegars and Khattrls, in Bangalore and Molakalmuru. Women
of the wealthier classes are often richly attired in silk cloths on cere-
monial or festival occasions. These, with or without gold and silver or
gilt lace borders, are largely manufactured at Bangalore , the silk and
wire used for the purpose are also produced in the State. Sericulture
is extensively carried on in the Closepet, Kankanhalli, Magadi, Chik-
Ballapur, Tirumakudal-Narsipur, and other taluks , but Bangalore is the
centre of the silk trade, where raw silk is prepared on a considerable
scale for the loom and dyed. There has recently been established here,
by the late Mr. J, N. Tata of Bombay, an experimental silk farm undei
Japanese management for improved systems of silkworm rearing, so as
to eliminate disease in the worms by microscopic examination of the
seed, and for better reeling Near Yelahanka is also an improved farm
belonging to Mr. Partridge for the scientific rearing of silkworms.

The carpets of Bangalore are well-known for their durable quality,
and for having the same pattern on both sides. The old patterns are
bold in design and colouring. The pile carpets and rugs made in the
Central jail from Persian and Turkish designs are probably superioi to
any other in India. Sir George Bird wood says^ : —

‘The stone slab from Koyundjik (palace of Sennachenb), and the
door-sill from Khorsabad (palace of Sargon), are palpably copied from
carpets, the first of the style of the carpets of Bangalore, and they
were probably coloured like carpets These South Indian carpets, the
Masulipatam, derived from the Abbasi-Persian, and the Bangalore,
without any trace of the Saracenic or any other modern influence, aie
both, relatively to their special applications, the noblest designed of any
denommation of carpets now made, while the Bangalore carpets are
unapproachable by the commercial carpets of any time and place.’
Carpets are less used now, and the industry has declined.

Gold circular or crescent-shaped ornaments worn by women on the
hair are called rdgate^ kyddige^ and jede bilk. Ornamental silver pins
with a bunch of chauri hair for stuffing the chignon or plait aie known
as chauri kupfe. Ear-rings for the upper rim are named bdvali , those
for the large hole in the lobe, vole or vale, A pear-shaped drop worn
on the forehead is called padaka. Necklaces include addike and

^ In his splendid book, called The Termless Antiquity y Historical Continmtyy and
Integral Identity of the Oriental Manufacture of Sumptuary CarpeiSy prepared for
the Atistro-Hunganan Government.

VOL. XVIII. P

220

MYSORE STATE

git7idina sara. Bracelets are termed kanka 7 ii\ armlets, vanki^ ndga-
murige^ tolu tdyiti^ ba 7 idi^ and bdjuhand. A zone is ddbu. Anklets of
silver are luh, ruU^ and kdlsarpani\ little bells for them, worn by
children, are kjlu gejje. Silver toe-rings are called pilh Silver chains
worn by men round the waist aie kno'wn as udidhdra. The silver
shrine containing the lingafn worn by Lingayats is karadige Small
silver money-boxes attached to the girdle are named tdyiti^ while an
egg-shaped silver chimdm box is simna kdyi.

Iron is widely diffused, and is obtained both from ore and from black
iron-sand. The principal places where iron is smelted are in the
Magadi, Chiknayakanhalli, Malavalli, Heggadadevankote, and Arsikeie
taluks^ in the southern and central parts of Chitaldroog District,
and in the eastern parts of Shimoga and Kadur Districts. A steam
iron foundry has been established at Bangalore under European man-
agement. There are native iron-works at Goribidnur and Chik-Ballapur.
Sugar-cane mills are made and repaired at Channarayapatna. The
local iron is used for making agricultural tools, ploughshares, tires for
cart-wheels, farriery shoes, and so forth. But local manufacture has
been driven from the field by the cheaper and better imported articles
from Europe, turned out on a laige scale with the aid of machinery.
Steel of a very high quality can be made \ but the methods used are
pnmitive, and it cannot therefore compete with the highly finished
European products of the present day, though it is preferred by the
natives for the edge of cutting tools. Steel is made especially in the
Heggadadevankote, Malavalli, and Maddagiri taluks. Steel wire is
drawn at Channapatna for strings of musical instruments, the quality
of which makes them sought after throughout Southern India.

The manufacture of brass and copper water and drinking vessels is
to a great extent in the hands of the Bhogajs, who are Jams, some of
the chief seats of the industry being at Sravana Belgola and Sitakal.
Brass is also used for making lamp-stands, musical instruments, and
images of the gods , and bell-metal for the bells and gongs used in
temples and in religious services, and by mendicants. Hassan and
Tumkur Districts produce the largest number of these articles.

The potter, as a member of the village corporation, is found in all
parts, with his wheel and his mounds of clay. The principal articles
made are pots for drawing or holding water, large urns for storing giain,
pipe tiles, and so forth. For sculpture, potstone or soapstone is the
common material, and of this superior cooking vessels are made,
besides images of the gods, and various ornamental articles. In the
higher departments of sculpture, such as statuary and monumental and
decorative carving, Mysore holds a high place. The Jain statue of
Gomata at Sravana Belgola, 5 7 feet high, standing on the summit of a
hill which rises to 400 feet, is one of the most remarkable works of native

ARTS AND MANUFACTURES

22 r

art in India. The decorative sculpture of the Halebid and Belur
temples Mr Fergusson consideis to be The most maivellous exhibitions
of human labour to be found even in the patient East,’ and such as he
believes never was bestowed on any surface of equal extent in any
building m the woild. The erection of the new palace at Mysore is
affording an opportunity of reviving the artistic skill of the sculptors.

Mysore is famous for its ornamental sandal-wood carving. This is done
by a class called Gtidigar, who are settled in Shimoga District, chiefly
at Sorab. The designs with which they entirely cover the boxes, desks,
and other articles made are of an extremely involved and elaborate
pattern, consisting for the most part of intricate intei lacing foliage and
scroll-work, completely enveloping medallions containing the represen-
tation of some Hmdu deity or subject of mythology, and here and
there relieved by the introduction of animal forms. The details, though
in themselves often highly incongruous, are grouped and blended with
a skill that seems to be instinctive in the East, and form an exceedingly
rich and appropriate ornamentation, decidedly Oriental in style, which
leaves not the smallest portion of the surface of the wood untouched.
The material is hard, and the minuteness of the work demands the
utmost care and patience Hence the carving of a desk or cabinet
involves a labour of many months, and the artists are said to lose their
eyesight at a comparatively early age. A number are being employed
on work for the new palace at Mysore Many old Hindu houses contain
beautiful specimens of ornamental wood-carving in the frames of doors,
and in pillars and beams The art of inlaying ebony and rosewood
with ivory, w'hich seems to have been cultivated by the Muhammadans,
and of which the doors of the mausoleum at Seringapatam are good
examples, has lately been revived at Mysore, and many useful and
ornamental articles, such as tables, desks, album covers, &c., are now
made there of this work. Similar inlaying is also met with in choice
musical instruments, especially the vzna or lute.

Coffee-works at Bangalore, owned by a Madras firm, peel, size, and
soit coffee berries in preparation for the European market. During the
cleaning season, December to March, about i,ooo hands have been
employed, and 1,500 tons of coffee, the produce of Mysore, Coorg, the
Nilgiris, Shevaroys, &c., once passed through the works. The present
depiession in coffee has reduced these figures to about a fourth. The
factory is also engaged in compounding artificial manures for coffee
plantations. There are other similar coffee-works at Hunsui, as well as
saw-mills A Madras firm has a cotton-gmning factory at Davangere.
A sugar factory has been established at Goribidnur, and a brick and
tile factory at Bangalore, for machine-made bricks and tiles, fire-bncks,
drain pipes, &c. Mention has already been made of the iron foundry
at Bangalore, and of the silk farm.

222

MYSORE STATE

The Mysore Spinning and Manufacturing Company at Bangalore was
established in 1883, and is under the management of a Bombay Pars!
firm. The nominal capital is Rs. 4,50,000, The mill contains 187
looms and 15,624 spindles, and employs 600 hands. The Bangalore
Woollen, Cotton, and Silk Mills Company at Bangalore was established
in 1888, and has a capital of Rs 4,00,000. It contains 14,160 spindles
for cotton, and 26 looms and 780 spindles for woollens. The number
of hands employed varies from 500 to 600. In 1903-4 the out-tuin
was 173,000 lb. of grey goods, 52,000 dozen of other goods; and
1,555,000 lb. of yarn.

Oil-mills are at work in Bangalore. Oil-pressing from the various
oilseeds grown in the country is the special calling of the class called
Ganigas, who are found in all parts of the State. The number of
piivate native mills was returned as 2,712 in 1904. Concessions for
the distillation of the valuable sandal-wood oil are granted by the State.

Tanneries on a considerable scale are managed by Muhammadans
in Bangalore, where hides are well cured and prepared for export to
European markets.

The only breweries are situated in the Civil and Military Station of
Bangalore Three supply the various beer taverns at Bangalore and
the Kolar Gold Fields with what is called ‘country beer.’ The fourth
makes a superior beer for the soldiers’ canteens in barracks.

The extension of railways and the opening out of roads have greatly
increased the facihties for trade. So far as the figures can be relied on,
the value of exports is about double that of im-
ports. The most valuable imports are grain and
pulse, articles of iron and steel, raw silk, piece-goods,
tobacco, and cotton thread. The chief exports, next to gold, are gram
and pulse, betel-leaf, areca-nuts, raw silk, sugar and jaggery, coifee,
and coco-nuts, chiefly the dned kernels. Among imports, tobacco
trebled during the ten years ending 1901. Among exports, while
gold increased nearly 100 per cent , coffee fell 44 per cent The ex-
port of sugar and jaggery and of coco-nuts (dry and fresh) doubled,
while that of betel-leaf quadrupled.

The principal Hindu trading classes of the country are Banajigas,
Komatis, and Nagartas , after whom come the Tamil Mudaliyars and
Musalmans. The traffic in grain is not entirely in the hands of
traders, for the ryots themselves are in the habit of clubbing together
and sending off one or two of their number to deal in grain at any con-
venient market or fair. Apart from the railway, the common mode of
carriage and transport is by country carts, the ordmary load of which
exceeds half a ton, drawn by bullocks which go 18 to 20 miles a day.
But in remote forest tracts and the hills, droves of pack-bullocks and
asses are still used, the carriers being generally Lambams or Korachas.

COMMUNJCA TIONS

223

Trade outside the State, excepting for gold and coffee, which are sent
to England, is chiefly confined to the surrounding British Districts.
Gold goes via Bombay, coffee generally by way of Mangalore or
Marmagao, the producers in both cases being, with hardly an excep-
tion, Europeans. The principal trading centres in the State are noted
under their respective Districts. A Bangalore Trades Association has
been formed, chiefly among the European shopkeepers m the Civil and
Military Station

The following table gives statistics of the total value (m thousands of
rupees) of imports and exports. The total value of the rail-bome trade
alone is given as — in 1890-1, imports 2 5 crores, exports 2*8 crores; in
1 900- 1, imports 3*8 crores, exports 3 4 croies. Details are not avail-
able

Imports

Exports.

1890-1

1900-1

1904-5

1890-1

1900-1

1904-5

Areca-nuts .

6,81

.5,95

7,42

51,86

'31,95

7,95

Betel-leaf

2,32

2,7.^

1,33

9,72

48,94

5»2i

Coco-nuts

12,18

6,56

10,43

6,97

14,63

4,74

Coffee ....

24 > 4 .*i

2,43

1,22

43 53

19,04

26,83

Cotton, raw

7.87

1,82

2,18

1,95

1,02

,, twist and yarn

11,85

10,22

15,29

6,83

1,26

1,16

,, piece-goods
„ other manufac-

40)45

21,42

24,15

tures

8,55

4.65

9'3i

Gram and pulse

1)07,73

1,09,92

1,97,90

1,64,99

2,56,35

2,03,53

Hides and skins

2,00

60,24

1,28

2,89,03

4,02

Metals, gold

4,82

3,01

15,03

3,52,01

„ silver

4,10

12,87

12,46

2,06

1,70

„ iron

18,02

20,29

I3i08

7,11

Oils .

1,75

2,67

438

2,25

Poppy seeds

1,64

1,73

Silk, raw

17,39

29,56

19,47

13,91

23,95

17,01

„ manufactured

2,08

2,37

13,52

3 26

1,21

4,89

Spices

5,19

£.67

2,54

7,44

.^,58

8,26

Sugar and jaggery

6,5'J

6,52

5,54

11,52

22,09

27,99

Tobacco

4.94

15.62

7.04

1,18

All other articles .

1,47,87

55,20

...

1,05,06

19,6s

Total

2,87,72

4,14,14

4,19.85

3,75,19

8,26,76

6,90,87

Communications.

The system of railways radiates from Bangalore, and there is no Dis-
trict without a railway running through some part of it. The Bangalore
branch of the Madras Railway, standard gauge, runs
for 55-| miles in the State, east from Bangalore city
to Bowringpet, then south-east to the main line at Jal^pet. From
Bownngpet the Kolar Gold Fields branch, 10 miles in length, on the
same gauge, runs first east and then south to the end of the Mysore
Mine-field The Southern Mahratta Railway, metre gauge, runs south-
west through Mysore to Nanjangud, and north-west through Harihar

224

MYSORE STATE

towards Poona, for 312 miles in the State From Yesvantpur a blanch,
51 miles in the State, runs noith through Hmdupur to Guntakal on the
Madras Railway. From Birur a branch, 38 miles long, runs north-west
to Shimoga. Surveys have been made to extend the line fiom Nanjan-
giid south-east to Erode on the Madras Railway, and also for a 2\ feet
gauge line to the west coast, either from Aisikere to Mangalore, 86
miles m the State, 01 from Mysore to Tellicherry, 58 miles in the State.
The Southern Mahratta Railway Company has proposed a metre-gauge
line from Marikuppam in Kolar District to Dodbele station in Banga-
lore District, in order to provide direct communication between the
Gold Fields and the port of Marmagao , and the survey for it is being
made. A light railway on the 2\ feet gauge, from Bangalore north to
Chik-Ballapur, 36 miles, is projected by a private company

The total length of line open in 1891 was 367 miles, of which 55-|
were standard gauge, and the rest metre gauge In 1904 the total was
466^ miles, the addition being all metre gauge. The Kolar Gold
Fields branch is worked by the Madras Railway, the remaining
Mysore State lines by the Southern Mahratta Railway on short-term
agieements. For the Mysoie-Harihar line the Southern Mahratta Rail-
way Company raised a loan on a guarantee of 4 per cent, interest by
the Mysore State, which also pays to the company one-fourth of the
suiplus profits

The capital outlay on all the lines owned by the Mysore State up
to 1904 is 2 3 crores, of which i 6 croies was incurred on the Mysore-
Harihar line. The number of passengers carried in 1903-4 was
2\ millions. The total expenditure was 7 7 lakhs, and the net earnings
7 lakhs. The Kolar Gold Fields and the Bangalore-Hindupur lines
were the only two that showed a surplus, after deducting 4 per cent, for
interest on the capital outlay

The railw^ays were expressly designed to serve as a protection against
times of scarcity, and since the great famine of 1876-8, when the only
railway was the Bangalore branch of the Madras Railway as far as the
cantonment, the pressure of severe distress has been averted Prices
have no doubt tended to become equalized It is not known that any
change in the language or customs of the people has arisen from the
extension of railways.

Trunk roads run through all the District head-quarteis to the
frontiers of the State, connecting the east coast and adjoining British
Districts by way of the Mysore table-land with the west coast. In
1856 there were 1,597 miles of road in the State Besides the con-
struction of new roads, improvements in the alignment of old ones,
provision of bridges across rivers, and other measures to ensure free
tiansit have since been continuously carried out. A good system of
local roads radiates from each District head-quarters to all parts of the

COMMUNICA TIONS

225

District. The previously almost inaccessible Malnad tracts in the west
weie the last to benefit, but these were generally opened up by about
1870 Much attention has also been paid to improving the ghat roads
through the passes in the mountains to the west. As railways have
extended, feeder roads have been made in those parts where none
existed.

The old style of carts had a solid wooden wheel. They are known as
Wodda carts, and are still employed at quarries for the transport of
stone. But for general pui poses they have long been superseded by
carts with spoked wheels, but without springs. These take a load of
over half a ton, and aie drawn by a pair of bullocks In the western
parts a broad wain, drawn by several pairs of bullocks, is used for
harvesting puiposes

In 1891 there were 1,730 miles of Provincial roads and 3,113 miles
of District or Local fund roads. In 1904 the figures were 1,927 miles
of Provincial roads, costing for upkeep an average of Rs. 199 per mile ,
and 3,502 miles of District or Local fund roads, maintained at an
average cost of Rs. 72^ per mile.

A steam tramway is proposed for 18 miles from Shimoga for the
transport of the manganese ores that are being collected there.

Owing to either rocky or shallow beds, none of the Mysore rivers is
navigable, nor are there any other waterways for such use.

The old postal system of Mysore, called the Anche^ dates from the
time of Chikka Deva Raja in the seventeenth century. In 1889 it was
amalgamated with the British postal service and the entire management
transferred to that department, on condition of all the official coiie-
spondence of the State being carried within the limits of the State free
of cost to the Darbar. There is no doubt that the change has been
on the whole for the benefit of the public. For postal services Mysore
is now a pait of the Madras circle. In 1904 there were 428 post
offices, and the mails were carried over 2,645 ^niles. The number
of letters delivered was 7 millions, of post-cards 5 millions, of news-
papers 650,000, of packets 660,000, and parcels 150,000. The value
of money orders issued was 53 lakhs. In the Post Office savings
banks 38,586 persons deposited 10-12 lakhs, and 9 18 lakhs was
drawn out.

In the Mysore State savings banks there were 20,214 depositors
in 1903-4. The opening balance of 73! lakhs was raised by deposits
(34 lakhs) and interest to no lakhs, of which 31 lakhs was paid
out in the year, leaving a balance of 79 lakhs at credit of the
depositors.

The Mysore State Life Insurance scheme was instituted in 1892, and
made obligatory on officials. Up to 1904 there had been issued 7,423
policies, assuring 44I lakhs. Of this number 6,762 remained effective,

226

MYSORE STATE

assuring 40 lakhs. The second quinquennial valuation of the assets
and liabilities of the Fund, made by an actuary in Edinburgh in
1902, confirmed its sound condition and the favourable nature of
its terms.

Failure of the rains for three seasons in succession brought about the
famine of 1876-8, and, in general, failure of the rains in any part is the
Fam'ne cause of famine. Those parts which receive

the least rainfall are therefore the most liable to
suffer: namely, Chitaldroog District, and the northern parts of Tumkur,
Bangalore, and Kolar Districts.

Rdgi is the staple food of all the labouring classes, and if this crop
fails there is widespread distress. A remedial measure is the raising of
crops dijola on the dry beds of tanks, but this is only a partial pallia-
tive. If the rdgt season has passed, horse-gram is more extensively
sown for human food, but this will not mature without some rain. Ragi
used formerly to be stored in underground pits, where it would keep
good for ten years, to be brought out for consumption in times of
scarcity But the inducements now presented by high prices elsewhere
and cheap means of transport have interfered with the replenishment of
such stores, and consequently there is less resource of that kind to fall
back upon. Rice, which is the main irrigated crop, is not much eaten
except by Brahmans, but always commands a ready sale for export.

The mformation about famines due to drought previous to that
mentioned above is very scanty, but dreadful famines followed the
devastations of the Maratha armies and the wars with Mysore at the
end of the eighteenth century. During the mvasion of I^rd Cornwallis,
when, as Buchanan-Hamilton says, the country was attacked on all
sides and penetrated in every direction by hostile armies, or by defend-
ing armies little less destructive, one-half at least of the inhabitants
penshed of absolute want. In the last century periods of scarcity
occurred in 1824, 1831, and 1833. The ten years following 1851 were
a time of great trial, when year after year the sparse and ill-timed
rainfall kept the agricultural classes in constant dread of actual want.
Two or three seasons ensued which were prosperous, but in 1866
famine was again present in Chitaldroog and the north-eastern parts
of the State.

Bad, however, as these seasons were, and critical as was the con-
dition of the country, the misfortune which was to come put them
completely in the shade. The failure of rain in the years 1875-7
brought about a famine such as was never known before. The begin-
ning of the calamity was the partial failure of the rains in 1875, the fall
being from one-third to two-thirds of the average. Much of the food-
crop was lost ; but owing to the usual large stocks in the State, only
temporary or occasional distress was caused, for the price of grain did

ADMINISTRA TION

227

not rise to double the ordinary rates. In 1876 the rainfall was again
very short, and barely a third of the ordinary harvest was reaped.
Matters were aggravated by the fact that crops had failed in the
adjacent Districts of Madras and Bombay ; and by the middle of
December famine had begun From then till March matters grew
worse The only railway, from Madras to Bangalore, brought in daily
500 tons of food (enough to support 900,000 people), yet the prices of
food ranged during those months at four to five times the ordinary
rates. In April and May, 1877, the usual spring showers fell, and hope
revived. But as the month of June wore on and July came, it was
apparent that the early rains were going to fail again, for the third year
in succession. Panic and mortality spread among the people , famine
increased and became sore in the land. In May 100,000 starving
paupers were being fed in relief kitchens, but by August the numbers
rose to 227,000, besides 60,000 employed on the railway to Mysoie city.
It became evident that the utmost exertions of the local officers were
unequal to cope with the growing distress. The Viceroy, Lord Lytton,
visited Mysore, and appomted Mr (now Sir) Charles Elliott as Famine
Commissioner, with a large staff of European assistants. Relief works
were now concentrated, and gratuitous relief was confined to those
whose condition was too low to expect any work from them at all.
Bountiful rams m September and October caused the cloud to lift, and
the pressure of famine began to abate. During the eight months of
extreme famine no crops were reaped ; the price of grain ranged from
three to six times the ordinary rates, and for the common people there
were no means of earning wages outside the relief works. Even in
1877-8 the yield of the harvest was less than half the crop of an
ordinary year. From November, 1877, throughout 1878, prices stood
at nearly three times the rate of ordinary years. The mortality in this
famine has been estimated at i J millions in a population of 5^ millions
Taking the ordinary mortality at 24 per 1,000 per annum, this was
raised to nearly fivefold, while a mean annual biith-rate of 36 per 1,000
was reduced to one-half.

The principal protective measures thus far successfully taken have
been the extension of railways, so as to admit of the import and dis-
tribution of food-grains to all parts, and the extension of irrigation and
other facilities for increasing cultivation. Plans for suitable relief works
are also kept in readiness to be put into operation at the first appear-
ance of necessity arising from scarcity.

His Highness the Maharaja is the head of the State, having been

invested with full powers on attaining his majority in 1902. In his

name, and subject to his sanction, the administration . , . . ^

, , , . Adxniiustratioii.

is carried on by the Dlwan or prime minister, who is

assisted by two Councillors. The Chief Court is the highest tribunal

228

MYSORE STATE

of justice, and is composed of a bench of thiee Judges, headed by the
Chief Judge There is a secretariat staff for the transaction of official
business, and Commissioners and other departmental officers at the
head of the various branches of the administration, with a Comptrollei
for finance and tieasury affairs. The dynastic capital is at Mysoie city,
but the administrative head-quarters are at Bangalore. The Maharaja
resides for part of the year at each of these places, but the higher
offices of the State are located at Bangalore The Representative
Assembly meets once a year at Mysore at the time of the Dasara
festival, when the Dlwan delivers his annual statement of the condition
of the finances and the measures of the State, after which suggestions
by the members are considered.

The administrative divisions of the State are eight m number, called
Distucts, with an average area of 3,679 square miles, and an average
population of 692,425. They are Bangalore, Kolar, Tumkur,
Mysore, Hassan, Kadur, Shimoga, and Chitaldroog. Each of
these IS named after its head-quarters, except Kadur District, the
head-quarters of which are at Chikmugalur. Mysore is the largest
District and Hassan the smallest

The chief officer in charge of a District is the Deputy-Commissioner,
who IS assisted by a staff of Assistant Commissioners The sub-
divisions of a District are taluks^ altogether 69 in number, averaging
eight or nine to each District^, with an average area of 427 squaie
miles. These are formed into convenient gioups of two, three, or
four, which are distributed, under the authority of the Deputy-Com-
missioner, among the various Assistants and himself in such a way as
to facilitate the dispatch of business and train the junior officers for
administrative duties.

The officer in charge of a taluk is the amalddr^ assisted by a sherista-
ddr, who has chaige of the tieasury and acts as his deputy in case of
need Large taluks have a portion divided off into a ^vh-tdluk under
the charge of a d^e^uty-afnalddr^ but with no separate treasury. A tdhik
IS composed of hobahs or hobhs, the average number being six to ten.
In each of these is a skekddr, or revenue inspector.

The headman of a village is the pdtel^ a gauda or principal farmer,
who IS assisted in revenue collections by the shdnbhog, a Brahman
accountant. These offices are hereditary, and form part of the village
corporation of twelve, called ay agar in Kanarese and hdra haliiti m
Marathi. The other members of this ancient institution are the Kam-
mar or blacksmith, the Badagi or carpenter, the Agasa or washer-
man, the Panchangi or Joyisa, an astrologer and calendar maker, the
Na^inda or barber, the Madiga or cobbler and leather-dresser, the
Kumbar or potter, the Talari or watchman, and the Nirganti or dis-
^ Kadur has only five, while Mjsore has fourteen, and Kolar ten.

LEGISLATION AND JUSTICE

229

tributoi of water for irrigation. The dozen is made up in some parts
by including the Akkasale or goldsmith ; in other parts his place is
taken by the poet, who is also the schoolmaster. The respective duties
of these village officials are definitely fixed , and their services are
remunerated either by the grant of rent-free lands, or by contributions,
on a certain scale, of gram, straw, &c., at harvest time.

On the rendition in 1881 a schedule of Acts already in force in
Mysore was appended to the Instrument of Transfer. A Legislative
department, under a legislative secretary, was formed
in 1886. There is no special Legislative Council. Legislation
The various regulations passed into law up to 1901
have been revised and published m two volumes, forming the Mysore
Code. The first volume contains the Acts passed before the rendition
and then taken over from the British Administration ; the second
volume contains the Regulations passed since. Among the later
Regulations the following may be mentioned To amend the Code of
Criminal Procedure (I of 1888), Measures of Length (III of 1890), to
amend the Mysore Land Revenue Code (I of 1891), Infant Marriages
Prevention (X of 1894), Village Sanitation (I of 1898), General Clauses
(III of 1899), Electricity (IV of 1900), to amend the Mysore Mines
Act (VI of 1900), Land Improvement Loans (I of 1901), Mysore Civil
Courts (III of 1901), Code of Civil Procedure (VI of 1901), Indian
Evidence Act (VIII of 1901), Local Boards (II of 1902), Weights and
Measures (III of 1902), Registration (I of 1903).

In 1903 there were r6 Munsifs’ courts, 5 Sub-Judges^ courts, 3 Dis-
trict courts, and the Chief Court Munsifs exercise original jurisdiction
in cases up to Rs 2,500 in value; Subordinate Judges have jurisdiction
in cases from above Rs. 2,500 to Rs. 10,000, and hear appeals from
decisions of Munsifs if referred to them by the District Judge ; District
courts have unlimited jurisdiction, and hear appeals from decisions of
Munsifs, and from those of Subordinate Judges within the limit of
Rs. 3,000; the Chief Court, sitting as a bench of not less than two
Judges, disposes of all other appeals brought before it.

Statistics of Civil Justice

A^ erage for ten
years ending

1890 1900

IQOO-I

IQO3-4

Suits for money and movable
property

Title and other suits

Rent suits ....

12,668

2,402

656

19,764

2,347

577

17,931

1,654

501

17,310

1,019

580

Total

15.726

22,688

20,086

18,809

230

MYSORE STATE

In 1903 there were 122 Subordinate Magistrates, 3 Sessions Judges,
8 District Magistrates, and the Chief Court. The Subordinate Judges
of Chikmugalur, Chitaldroog, and Hassan were also invested with the
powers of Assistant Sessions Judges. In 1887 the system of trial by
jury was introduced m Sessions cases. For appellate jurisdiction in
criminal cases, the benches of the Chief Court that sit for civil appellate
work dispose also of criminal appeals. The Chief Court moreover acts
as a court of reference and a court of revision.

Statistics of Criminal Justice

Average for ten
years ending

1900-1.

1903-4

1890

1900

Number of persons tried •—

{a) For offences against pei-
son and property .

17.05*5

18,867

18,848

16,533

{b) For other offences against
the Indian Penal Code .

3 j 039

3,959

3,565

3.376

2,984

4^07^

4,626

2,869

Total

23.079

26,897
1

27.039!

22 778

The Excise Commissioner is also Inspector-General of Registration.
The number of sub-registry offices in 1904 was 80, of which 59 were
special, or with paid establishments, the remainder being in charge of
taluk revenue officers. The number of documents registered from
1881 to 1890 averaged 21,747; from 1891 to 1900, 46,251^ and in
1904 the number was 57,637.

In addition to the local audits, the State accounts have been
examined at various times by auditors deputed by the Government
Finance India. The revenue under all heads has risen.

The increase under land is due to extension of
cultivation. Since 1885 mining leases and the royalty on gold-produc-
tion have added a new item to the revenue. The increase under
excise IS due mainly to an improved system of control, but also to
a larger consumption arising from higher wages and the influx to the
Gold Fields, and from the employment on railways, public works, and
coffee plantations of classes with drinking habits. The decrease under
land customs and assessed taxes is due to these duties having been
transferred to municipalities wherever they exist. The only customs
retained by the State are on areca-nuts, the bulk of which are the
produce of Kadur and Shimoga Districts. An increase under forests
took place owing to a revival of the market for sandal-wood, and to a
greater supply of sleepers for railways. Subsequently the war between
China and Japan temporarily crippled one of the principal sandal-

FINANCE

23T

wood markets, and not only did the demand for railway sleepers cease
with the completion of the lines, but coal began to be substituted for
wood as fuel for the engines. Since 1902 a substantial return has been
received from the Cauvery Power installation for supplying electncity
to the gold-mines.

Principal Sources of Ordinary Revenue

(la thousands of rupees)

Average for ten years
ending

I9OO-I

1904-S

1890

IQOO

Land revenue .

Mining leases

Stamps

Excise

Provincial rates .

Assessed taxes

Forests

Registration

Other sources .

77,33

60*

4,99

14,81

3.81

2,98

8,76

7-56

94,16

8,36

7.27

31.34
3,83
2,78

13.35

15,93

98,31

14,45

7,94

36,17

3,10

2,16

12,58

1,25

15,78

96,69

16,91

7,16

37,75

3,64

3,01

18,90

1,18

29,22

Total

1,21,09

1,77,47

1,91,74

2,14,46

* From 1885-6.

Expenditure under Principal Heads

(In thousands of rupees)

Average for ten
years ending

IQCX)-!

1904-?

1890

1900

Charges in respect of collection (prm-

cipally land revenue and forests) .

16,29

21,09

22,47

23:41

Salaries and expenses of Civil Depart-
ments : —

{ a ) General admmistration

3,02

6,15

8,29

8,iS

(< 5 ) Law and justice .

6,05

9,18

10,22

9»65

10,41

{ c ) Police , . . .

5,18

8,24

9,80

{d) Education .

1,68

4,87

6,65

7,73

(^) Medical

L 53

2,87

4,29

5,86

(/) Other heads

6,23

8,19

10,98

10,66

Pensions and miscellaneous civil

charges

40,74

53,33

68,36

66,43

Famine relief

Irrigation ....

5*42

11,16

8,04

14,72

Public works

9 »i 9

34»59

49,08

40,72

Other charges and adjustments .

14,21

13,85

14,14

19,06

Total expenditure

L097S5

1,73,72

3,12,24

2,16,98

The land tenures in the State are sarkdr or State, and tnam. The
former are held under the ryotwdri or individual tenure, on payment

MYSOJ^JS STATE

232

of kanddyain or a fixed money assessment, settled for thirty years
Kanddyani lands are held direct from the State on annual leases,
but the assessment is not as a rule altered or raised

Land revenue, the period for which it is fixed. The oidmary

rates of assessment apply to the whole extent of the ryot’s holding,
and not to the area actually cultivated, as he has rights to a certain
extent over included waste Remission of assessment is not given
in individual cases , but when there is general loss of crop in a
locality and consequent distress, remission may be granted as a measure
of relief.

In the case of private estates, such as indm and kdyamgiitta villages,
and large farms of Government lands cultivated by payakaris or under-
tenants, the land is held on the following tenures vdrani^ or equal
division of produce between landlord and tenant, the former paying
the assessment on the land to the State ; muhkiippe^ under which two-
thirds of the produce goes to the cultivator, and one-third to the
landlord, who pays the assessment , arakanddya or chaturbhdga^ undei
which the landloid gets one-fourth and the cultivator three-fourths
of the produce, each paying half the assessment , tmlakanddya^ in
which the tenant pays a fixed money-rate to the landloid, which may
either be equal to or moie than the assessment

An hereditary right of occupation is attached to all kanddyam lands.
As long as the ryot pays the State dues he has no fear of displacement,
and virtually possesses an absolute tenant-right as distinct from that
of proprietorship. When the State finds it necessary to lesume the
land for public puiposes, he always receives compensation, fixed either
by mutual agreement or under the Land Acquisition Act. No legisla-
tion has been passed to check the acquisition of land by non-agri-
cultural classes

In the Malnad or hill country towards the Western Ghats the
holdings of the ryots are called vargs, A varg consists of all the fields
held by one vargddr or farmer^, and these are seldom located
together, but are generally found scattered in different villages, and
sometimes m different tdluks. Attached to each varg are tracts of
land called hankalu and Mdya, for which no sepaiate assessment is
paid. Hankalu lands are set apart for grazing purposes, but have
sometimes been used for ‘ dry ’ cultivation. Those attached to ‘ wet ’
fields are called tattina hankalu. Hddya are lands covered with low
brushwood and small trees, which supply firewood or leaves for
manunng the fields of the varg. Tracts of forest preserved for the
sake of the wild pepper vines, ^^^«^-palms, and certain gum-trees that
grow m them, are called kdns^ for which a cess is paid.

^ These terms often appear as warg and wargddr in official papers.

ZAND REVENUE

233

Lands for coffee cultivation have been gi anted from State jungles,
chiefly in the Western Ghats region. The plot applied for was sold
by public auction. If the jungle was to be cleared, notice was given,
to allow of officials removing or disposing of ‘reserved’ tiees. Besides
coffee nothing may be grown on the land, except shade tiees for the
coffee. Within five years a minimum of 500 coffee-trees to the acre
must be planted. On the coffee-trees coming into beaiing an excise
duty, called hdlaf^ of 4 annas per maund, was formerly levied on the
produce, m lieu of land rent. But from 1885 an acreage assessment
was substituted — either R i per acre, with a guarantee for thirty years
on the terms of the survey settlement, or a permanent assessment of
Rs. i-| per acie, on the terms of the Madras Coffee Land rules Nearly
all the large planters have adopted the latter conditions. But the
great fall in the prices of coffee in recent years, owing to the com-
petition of Brazil, has reduced this previously flourishing industry to
a very depressed condition.

Lands have been offeied since 1904 for rubber cultivation, in plots
of 50 acres, selected with the consent of the Forest department, to be
held free of assessment for the first five years, and subject to the
assessment fixed by the survey settlement in the sixth year and after.
The work of planting must be commenced within one year from the
date of the grant \ and in stocking the area with rubber plants, tiees
may not be felled without permission

Lands for cardamom cultivation are gi anted from the jungles on
the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, where the plant grows
wild. Tracts of not less than 5 or more than 200 acres, when
applied for, are put up to auction, and may be secured on a twenty
years’ lease on terms similar to those for coffee lands. Not less than
500 cardamom plants per acre must be planted within five years,
and nothing else may be cultivated on the ground. Trees, except
of the ‘ reserved ’ kinds, may be felled to promote the growth of the
cardamoms.

The tenure called kdyamgutta literally means a ‘permanent village
settlement.’ It owes its origin probably to depopulated villages being
rented out by the State on a fixed but very moderate lease, on the
understanding that the renter would restore them to a prosperous con-
dition. But m the early part of last century even flourishing villages
were granted to court favourites on this tenure, and some of the most
valuable lands are thus held. Shrdya lands are waste or jungle tracts
granted at a progressive rent, in order to bring them under cultivation.
They are free of assessment for the first year, and the demand increases
afterwards yearly from one-quarter to full rates in the fourth or fifth
year. For the planting of timber, fruit, and fuel trees, unassessed
waste land, or assessed ‘dry’ land, if unoccupied for ten years con-

234

MYSORE STATE

secutively, is granted free of assessment for eight years, then nsing
by a quarter rate to full assessment in the twelfth year.

The conditions on which tndm tenures are held vary considerably
Some are free of all demands, while in others the usual assessment
IS reduced The grants differ also in origin, according as they were
made to Brahmans, for religious and charitable pui poses, to village
servants, for the maintenance or construction of tanks and wells, or
otherwise

Licences for exploring for minerals, on areas approved by Govern-
ment, are granted on deposit of a fee of Rs. lo, to run for one year
No private or occupied lands may be explored without the consent
of the owner, occupier, or possessor. Prospecting licences for minerals
may be obtained for one year, on a minimum deposit of Rs. loo, and
a rent of Rs 50 per square mile or portion of a square mile. The
licensee may select, wnthin the year, a block foi mining, not exceeding^
one squaie mile, in the licensed area

Mining leases limited to one square mile, of rectangular shape, are
granted for thirty years, on deposit of Rs. 1,000 as security, and
furnishing satisfactory evidence that a sum of £10,000 will be raised
within two yeais for carrying on mining operations on the block of
land applied for. The cost of survey and demarcation is paid by the
applicant, and mining operations must start within one year. An
annual rent of R i per acre is payable to the State on the mining
block, together with all local cesses and taxes, and in each year in
which a net profit is made, a royalty of 5 per cent, is levied on the
gross value of gold and silver produced. If the net profits exceed
£25,000, an additional royalty is payable of 5 per cent, on the net
profits above that sum. But in the case of a registeied company, the
royalty may be paid on divisible instead of net profits.

The land revenue assessment is fixed by the Revenue Survey depart-
ment on the method already described (p. 214, above). The system
resembles that followed in Bombay, which was preferred to that of
Madras. The former was chosen because all the steps in survey,
classification, and settlement are under the direction of one responsible
head, and made to fit into one another

The present revenue survey was introduced in 1863, and the settle-
ment was completed in 1901. The settlements made under it are
current for thirty years The previous survey, made at the beginning
of the nineteenth century, was necessarily very imperfect, and after
the lapse of fifty years the records had become extremely defective,
advantage having been taken of the insurrection in 1830 to destroy the
survey papers in many cases.

In 1700 the Mysore king Chikka Deva Raja acknowledged one-
sixth to be the lawful share of the crop to be paid to him, but added

MISCELLANEOUS EE VENUE

235

a number of vexatious petty taxes to enhance the amount indirectly.
In Bednur (Shimoga District) Sivappa Naik’s s/itsf, fixed in 1660,
was one-third of the gross produce. This continued for thirty nine
years, after which various additions were made, chiefly to raise funds
for buying off the enemy. After the overthrow of Tipu Sultan, during
the eleven years of Purnaiya’s administration (1800-10), the highest
land revenue was equivalent to 94 lakhs m 1809, and the average
was 83 lakhs. During the twenty-one years of the Raja’s adminis-
tration which followed (1811--31), the highest was 90 lakhs, and the
average 79 lakhs. In the first year of British administration (1831-2),
the land revenue was set down as 48 lakhs, but included in this
were 83 different cesses, besides 198 taxes unconnected with it.
The general average assessment was usually one-third of the gross
produce. In 1881-2 the total revenue was 107 lakhs, of which the
land yielded 71 lakhs In 1903-4 the total revenue had risen to
214 lakhs, and the land revenue to 98 lakhs.

The two principal sources of excise revenue are toddy and arrack.
The former, drawn from the date-palm, and also from coco-nut, palmyra,
and dagm palms, is the immemorial beverage of the
agricultural classes, a mild and comparatively in- ^scellaneous
nocuous drink, its average alcoholic strength being
2-| per cent. Arrack, which is far stronger and more harmful, is
chiefly consumed by industrial labourers, and has an average alco-
holic strength of 39^ per cent. The consumption of toddy is fairly
stationary, while that of arrack has a decided tendency to increase
year by year. Formerly the right to sell toddy was farmed out by
Districts, and was virtually a monopoly in the hands of a few con-
tractors, between whom and the Darbar was a large class of middlemen.
Want of proper control not only led to the supply of infenor liquor,
but threatened the destruction of the date groves themselves. The
new system broke up each into convenient farms, which supplied
a certain number of shops from particular groves. The number of
toddy shops remained the same, so that the increase of revenue was
entirely due to the abolition of needless intermediaries. As regards
arrack, the policy has been to enhance the duty gradually up to
the highest point consistent with the prevention of illicit distillation
or contraband importation. In addition to this, the main causes
which have tended to increase the revenue have been — ^the abolition
in 1884 of all outlying distilleries and the concentration of manu-
facture in one distillery near Bangalore under centralized control;
and further, the separation in 1892 of the business of manufacture
from that of distribution, and the adoption of a system for the sale
of the privilege of retail vend. These measures led to the manu-
facture being taken up by European firms with large capital and

VOL. XVIII. Q

236

MYSORE STATE

superior technical resources^ thus reducing the cost Supplies were
conveyed under separate contract to bonded depots in the Districts
In 1897 the still-head duty was raised to Rs. 4-12, and the retail
rate to Rs. 6-6, per gallon, for liquor 20° under proof. The sale
of the right of vend, on the ‘ separate shop system ’ in the cities
and Gold Fields, and on the ‘vend rent system’ in taluks or circles
of villages, has seemed to the State what previously formed the
profits of middlemen In 1898 a tree tax was introduced, for better
regulating the consumption of toddy and conserving the date groves,
the rate being Rs. i-i per tree per annum for date-trees, and cor-
responding rates for other palms. In 1901 a tree rent of 4 annas
per tree per annum was levied on trees tapped for toddy. In 1903-4
there were 12 toddy depots and 3,837 retail shops, 962 of these being
for the sale of bagni toddy. The number of trees tapped was 422,855,
and the quantity of toddy consumed was 9,809,640 gallons Retail
shops for the sale of arrack numbered 931. The issue of spirits
from the distillery amounted to 43,482 gallons. The greatest con-
sumption is, of course, in the cities and the Gold Fields The other
sources of excise revenue are country beer, foieign liquors, hemp
drugs {gdnja and mdjum), and opium. In 1899 the proportion of
alcohol in country beer was fixed so as not to exceed 8 per cent,
by volume. A scale of licence fees for the sale of foreign liquors
was also presenbed. Country-made foreign spirits of weaker strength
were introduced in 1904 to meet the requirements of the people, who
were found in their absence to have recourse to inferior foreign stuff.
Gdnja is grown by contractors under departmental supervision in
specified localities. There were 237 retail shops in 1903-4 for the
sale of gdnja and mdjum^ and 15,594 seers were sold. Opium, pie-
viously imported from Malwa, has since 1903 been obtained from
the Madras storehouse. There were 126 shops in 1903-4 licensed
to sell opium, and 1,438 seers w^ere consumed.

Up to 1901 there were ten Local fund circles, one for each of the
eight Distncts, and for the French Rocks and the Kolar Gold Fields

Local and
municipal.

Two years later a new system was introduced, and
a District board has been constituted for each
Distnet (in addition to the Kolar Gold Fields

Sanitary Board), besides a taluk board for each tdluk or ^■\YQ-idluk.

In 1904 these boards consisted of 1,188 members, of whom 372

were appointed ex officio^ and 816 were non-official. Tdluk boards

(since 1905) consist of 15 members : namely, 5 official, 5 elected,
and 5 appointed by the State. District boards consist of 25 mem-
bers : namely, one non-official elected for each tdluk of the District

by the members of the tdluk board from their own body, and

the rest ex officio or appointed by the State. The members hold

LOCAL AND MUNICIPAL

237

office ordinanly for three years. Their chief functions embrace
the construction and maintenance of loads and bridges, with assis-
tance of the Public Works department if required, improving and
conserving the water-supply, the provision and upkeep of travelleis’
bungalows and musdfirkhdfias (native resthouses), dispensaries, sanita-
tion of villages, &c. Funds are obtained by a cess of one anna in
the rupee on land revenue, and on revenue from excise, sayer^ and
forests.

Income and Expenditure of District Boards

Particulars

Averagfe
for ten years
1891-1900

1 900- 1

1903-4

Income from —

Land revenue*

Provincial rates .

Interest

Miscellaneous

Public works .

Pounds

Ferries , . . .

5,02,409

36,592

3,426

41,200

8,605

5 , 22,591

10,803

37,249

1,924

31.7S2

5.845

5,22,639
fi, 66,356
275
2,905

10,644

34,220

19,388

Total income

5,92,232

6,10,194

7.56,427

Expenditure on —

Refunds .

General administration

Education . .

Medical

Miscellaneous

Public woiks .

692

22,531

4,210

58,904

20,400

5,17,045

224

31,407

7,023

74,049

13,818

4,58,914

17,692

52,408

47,017

30,794

5,22,294

■Total expenditure

6,23,782

5,85,435

6,70,205

• This Item represents 76 per cent of local cesses

t includes 1 12 lakhs special contributions from Local funds tor pla^e and other
establishments, and balances transferred from municipalities converted into Unions.

In 1901 the number of municipalities was 124 (exclusive of the Civil
and Military Station of Bangalore), of which 117 had a population
under 10,000, and 7 a population of from 10,000 to 100,000 In
1904, 36 of the minor municipalities, which were not taluk head-
quarters and had a population of less than 3,000, were converted into
Unions, a lancMyat being appomted for each Union. A panchdyat
consists of 5 to 12 members, appointed by the State. The 88 munici-
palities in 1904 had 1,049 members, of whom 285 were officials. All
of the members are natives, except about 20 Europeans.

The Kolar Gold Fields Samtary Board was constituted in Septem-
ber, 1899, with 3 ex-officio members, and 4 non-official members
nominated by the Mining Board Its jurisdiction extends over the
Kolax Gold Fields Sanitary Circle, embracing the Gold Fields and
many of the surrounding villages. It deals with disposal of refuse,

Q 2

238

MYSORE STATE

watei -supply, pievention of overcrowding, drains and latrines, keeping
and slaughter of live-stock, &c , burial and burning-grounds, prevention
and treatment of infectious and contagious diseases, and underground
sanitation of the mines.

I'lie municipal board of the Civil and Military Station of Banga-
lore has consisted, since 1904, of a president, a medical officer, and
24 other members, 6 appointed by the Resident, and 18 elected,
the former holding office for three years, and the latter for two. The
Trades Association elect one member, Europeans and Eurasians 6,
Muhammadans 3, and Hindus and others 8.

. Income and Expenditure of Municipalities

Average
for ten years
1891-1900

1900-1

1903-4

Octroi

Tax on houses and lands

Other taxes

Rents . . ...

Loans . ....

Other sources ....

1,56,298

1,29,997

2,881

18,8^2

36>463

3.05.900

2,48,426

1,63,962

1,217

24,507

3.3,026

3,08,024

2,19,038

1.83,879

1.32,917

30,277

1.03,464

1.81,033

Total income

6.50,371

7.79.162

8,50,608

Expenditure on administration and
collection of taxes

Public safety * ....

Water-supply and drainage
Conservancy . . . ,

Hospitals and dispensaries

Public works , . . .

Education . ....

Other heads

53,756

3,254

23,014

i,34>5io

4i»3i5

2,177463

38,044

1730,941

70,392

27,298

1.79.641

53.452

1.68,905

38,451

2,25,301

65.397

759

64,747

1,80,901

26,027

2,56,172

39,146

3,34.666

Total expenditure

6.42.297 j

7.63.340

9,57,815

* Police not charged to municipalities

The Public Works department is controlled by a Chief Engineer,
a Deputy-Chief Engineer, and two Superintending Engineers, who are

, in charge respectively of the Eastern and Western
Public Works, r*. , -o i 17 17

Circles. These are Royal Engineers or European

officers. Separate branches have been formed for roads and buildings,

and for irrigation. The executive staff are, with few exceptions,

natives trained in Indian Engineeimg Colleges. Local works on

a large scale, which require professional skill, are carried out by the

Public Works department on requisition from other departments, by

which the needed funds are placed at their disposal.

Of original works carried out by the department only a few can be

mentioned. The railways include the line from Bangalore to Mysore

ARMY

239

and Nanjangud south-westwards, to Gubbi westwards, to Hindupur north-
wards, and the Kolar Gold Fields and Birur-Shimoga branches. The
irrigation works include the Sriramadevar anicut and channels, and
others in Mysore and Hassan Districts, the great Mari Kanave, Boia
Kanave, Srinivasa Sagara, and many more. The excellent system of
loads through the formerly impassable mountainous parts of Kadur
District, and the fine ghat roads through passes to the west coast,
deserve special mention. With these should be named the great
bridges over the Tungabhadra at Harihar, over the Hemavati at
Sakleshpur, and the bridges at Belur, Bale Honnur, Tippur, Tadasa,
and other places over broad rivers. Of hospitals, the most important
are the Bowring and Lady Curzon in the Civil and Military Station
of Bangalore, and the Victoria m the city. Other buildings include the
public offices at Bangalore, the Palace, the Residency, the Central
College, and Mayo Hall, the new Palace at Mysore city, with the
public offices there, the Maharaja’s College, &c., and at Sermgapatam
the restoration of the Darya Daulat.

Municipal and other water-supply schemes aie represented by the
Hesarghatta tank, the source of the Bangalore water-supply; the
filling up of Purnaiya’s Nullah at Mysore and the carrying out of the
Kukarhalli and other water-works there , the provision at Betmangala
for the water-supply of the Kolar Gold Fields, and minor works of that
nature in various towns. The transmission of electric power from
the Cauvery Falls to the Kolar Gold Fields having been successfully
accomplished, electric lighting from the same source has been intro-
duced into Bangalore and is being carried out at Mysore. Large
extensions have been laid out and occupied in Bangalore and
Mysore city, with a new town at the Gold Fields, all on the most
modem principles.

The total strength of the British and Native army stationed within
Mysoie on June i, 1903, was as follows • British, 2,093 , Native, 2,996 ,
total, 5,089. The Mysore State forms for military
purposes part of the Ninth (Secunderabad) Division,
which is for the present directly under the Commander-in-Chief. It
has a cavalry and an infantry brigade, as well as artillery. The only
military station is Bangalore, which is also the head-quarters of a volun-
teer rifle corps. The total volunteer strength within Mysore, including
detachments of railway volunteers, was 1,512 in 1903. The Coorg
and Mysore Rifles also have detachments at Chikmugalur and
Sakleshpur, in the planting districts to the west.

The Mysore State force had a sanctioned strength of 2,722 in 1904,
of whom nearly a half were Muhammadans and a fifth Marathas,
the rest being Hindus and Christians in about equal numbers. The
foice is composed of two regiments of Silladar cavalry, and three

240

MYSORE STATE

battalions of Bair infantry. In 1903 the former were 1,072 stiong,
and the latter 1,814, Imperial Service Lancers, raised in April,

1892, form one cavalry regiment, stationed in Bangalore, and with
them is kept up a tiansport corps of 300 ponies The Local Seivice
Cavaliy regiment is stationed at Mysore. The Barr battalions have
their head-quarteis at Mysore city, Shimoga, and Bangalore, with
detachments in out-stations The State military expenditure was 7*9
lakhs in i88o-r, 6-i lakhs in 1890-1, and 9*4 lakhs m 1903-4.

The police are under an Inspectoi -General The sanctioned
stiength of the regular force in 1904 was 882 officers and 5,045
men, or one policeman to every 5 83 square miles and
andhSs inhabitants. The village police were for the

first time provided with uniform and arms in 190 1-2
They help the regular police in the prevention and detection of ciime,
and in reporting the arrival and departure of criminal gangs and
suspicious-lookmg sti angers. The system of night watch is regularly
maintained in all the villages of the Maidan tracts. The watching by
toHs and talaris m ookkads and outposts on important roads and jungle
tiacts has worked 'well There is a Police Training School, where
reciuits and officers and men are taught dull, codes, and surveying and
drawing But the police service is not as a rule popular with the
educated classes of natives Finger-prints and anthropometry have
been used to trace criminals in recent years.

The special reserve is a body selected for good physique, and is
better paid, equipped, and drilled than the other police The members
go through a course of musketry, and are held ready for emergencies
in any part of the country, and are employed in putting down organized
dacoities and serious disturbances of the public peace. There aie
three detachments, stationed respectively at Bangalore, Mysore city,
and Shimoga

The Kolar Gold Fields Police is a special body, with 50 officeis and
279 men, under a sepaiate European Superintendent, and is largely
composed of Sikhs and Punjabis recruited from the noith of India.
It was foimed in April, 1900, and has jurisdiction over the Bowiingpet,
Malur, and Mulbagal taluks

The troops aid the police in various ways , detachments of the Local
Service Cavalry patrol certain roads, while the infantry act as treasury
guards and escorts The Railway police, reckoned as m British
service, are under the Superintendent of Police of the Civil and
Military Station of Bangalore, subject to the orders of the Resident

The following are statistics of cognizable crime, the figures being
the average for the five years ending 1901 : number of cases reported,
3,221; number decided m criminal courts, 1,828; number ending in
acquittal or discharge, 584; number ending in conviction, 1,244.

POLICE AND JAILS

241

Police Statistics

i88r

i8gi

1901

1904

Siipe?'visti 7 g Staff
District and Assistant Super-

mtendents

Inspectors .

102

Subordinate Staff

Stib-inspectors .

352

465

843

13^

Head constables

753 ^

Constables ....

3,676

4,684

5.034

5,045

Municipal

978

449

526

Total expendituie . Rs

4 55,000

6,61,000

9,05,000

9,78 000

* The designations are chief constables (13), head constables, daffadars^

and sergeants (yss)

Convicts are employed on cleaning and grinding rdgi ; on prison
duties, as prison warders, servants, and gardeners ; on the preparation
of articles for use or consumption in the jails ^ on jail buildings, manu-
factures, and public works. The chief mdustnes are printing, carpet,
tent, and blanket-making, cloth-weaving, gunny and coir work, car-
penter’s and blacksmith’s work in the Central jail at Bangalore, and
weaving and spinning, basket and mat-making, and pottery in the
Mysore District jail. The most numerous admissions into hospital on
account of sickness are for malarial fevers. The high mortality in i88i
shown below was due to dysenteiy or diarrhoea, and anaemia, in 1901
there were foui deaths fiom cholera.

Jail Statistics

1S81.

1891

1901.

1904

Number of Central jails .

,, District jails .

,, SubsidiPiy jails

(lock-ups)

Average daily jail population

669

(ff) Males — In Central jails

786

424

872

In other jails

1,104

459

493

131

iff) Females — In Central jails

In other jails.

Total

1,976

944

1,214

1,054

Rate of jail moitality per i ,000

20 6

19.74

17*00

Expenditure on jail main-

89,000

tenance . . . Rs

1,59,000 i

1,12,000

88)744

Cost per prisoner . Rs.

77-6-2

94-ii-TO

92-5-4

84-11-6

Profits on jail manufactures Rs.

12,194

15,900

18,738

36,230

Earnings per prisoner Rs

6-6-5

19-7-9

18-8-8

42-8-0

242

MYSORE STATE

Highly as learning was always esteemed, education seems never
under foimer native rulers to have been regarded as a duty of the
State. It was left to the voluntary principle, and
Education. mostly in the hands of the priests. At the same

time we find that, in the primitive corporation of the ‘village twelve/
a poet, who was also a schoolmaster, was sometimes provided instead
of a goldsmith Endowments were often given for promoting learning
as a leligious duty.

Education on modern lines was first introduced by European
missionaries. In 1826 a Mysore Mission College was pioposed for
Bangalore by the London Mission, conducted by a staff of European
professors, aided by learned pandits^ and designed to attract students
from all parts of India. But their home authorities were not piepaied
to carry it out. Between 1840 and 1854 the Wesleyans established
schools at some of the District head-quarters with aid from Govern-
ment, the principal being their institution at Bangalore, founded m
1851 At Mysore the Maharaja maintained an English free school.
The State expenditure on education in 1855 was Rs 16,500 a year.

The Educational department was formed in 1857, and m 1858
a high school affiliated to the Madras University was established at
Bangalore, converted in 1875 into the Central College. The Wesleyan
schools in the Districts w^ere taken over by Government, and vernaculai
schools gradually established in the taluks. In 1861 a normal school,
and in 1862 an engineering school, were attached to the high school
at Bangalore In 1868 the hohh school system, for extending primary
education among the masses, was introduced, and greatly added to the
operations of the department. The schools were to be supported by
a local cess ; but in 1872 the proportion of 24 per cent of Local funds
was allotted as the village school fund, raised in 1903 to 33 per cent.

The famine of 1876-8 had a disastrous effect on all public under-
takings. Education, which had greatly flourished, both public and
private, was starved for want of funds. The normal schools were
closed, the Euiopean Inspectors were dispensed with, the Director of
Public Instruction was placed in charge of the Census and the Police
in addition to Education, and later on of Archaeology instead of Police,
all the cost of vernacular schools was thrown on Local funds, and rigid
economy stood in the way of any expansion. In 1884 a revision was
made of the higher institutions, but it was not till 1890 that a freer ex-
penditure enabled progressive measures to be adopted. In 1887 the
Mysore local examinations w'ere instituted for teachers and pupils of
vernacular schools, giving a definite aim to the courses of study. At the
end of 1888 education in the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore
was transferred to the Madras Educational department In 1889 the
cost of the taluk vernacular schools was again made a charge on State

EDUCATION

243

funds, thus relieving the village school fund. In 1891 the number of
native Deputy-Inspectois was doubled. The department is now con-
trolled by an Inspector-General of Education, whose head-quarters were
removed to Mysoie in 1894 but again established at Bangalore in 1899,
The State was divided m 1903 into two portions for control and in-
spection, between the Inspector-General and his Assistant. The former
retains the eastern Districts, with head-quarters at Bangalore, and the
latter has charge of the western Districts, with head-quarters at Mysore
city. The only Europeans recruited from England are the heads
of the colleges at Bangalore and Mysore. The inspecting staff was
further strengthened m 1905.

Of the colleges affiliated to the Madras University, those of the first
grade are the Central College at Bangalore and the Maharaja’s College
at Mysore city. The former takes mathematics and physical science as
the optional subjects for the B.A. degree, and the latter mathematics
and history. The second-grade colleges are the St Joseph’s College at
Bangalore, the MaharanI’s College at Mysore city, and the Sacred Heart
College attached to the Convent of the Good Shepherd at Bangalore.
This last and St. Joseph’s are aided from the revenues of the Assigned
Tract, and the others are supported by the State. The first-grade
colleges are provided with hostels. There are also Sanskrit colleges of
a high standard at Mysore, Bangalore, and Melukote, the two latter
being aided. Bangalore has, moreover, been selected as the site of the
Indian Institute of Research for post-graduate study, to be founded on
Mr. Tata’s endowment.

University Results

Passes in

1S81

1891

1901

1904

Matriculation

P irst or Intermediate in Arts

194

156

J25

or Science

Oidinaiy Bachelors degree

35*

96*

131*

Higher and special degrees

* These figures show the passes in any one branch of the three which qualify for the
full degree

Secondary schools include high schools and middle schools. The
former have the matriculation examination as their goal, while the latter
prepare for the lower secondary examinations, the course being partly
English and partly vernacular. In 1904 there were 202 State, 3 muni-
cipal, 55 aided, and 3 unaided schools, the last being middle schools.
The amount of aid to private schools is based on their expenditure,
and their efficiency as tested by the reports of Inspectors and results
of public examinations. The proportion of the male population of
school-going age under secondary instruction in 1904 was 2 per cent.

244

MYSORE STATE

The primary stages are divided into upper and lower, the latter
ending with the ability to read from printed books. In 1904 there
were 1593 State, 285 aided, and 14 unaided primary schools. As
to the qualifications of the teachers, out of 3,179 in State employ,
149 held a normal school or teacher’s certificate, others had passed
various examinations, including 154 who had passed the University
matriculation or higher tests, leaving 1,002 who had not passed any.
The mimmum pay of the village schoolmasters was laised from Rs. 5
to Rs. 7 a month in 1901, but better prospects aie needed for their
future. With a view to providing funds for this purpose, the levy
of fees has been introduced in all village schools, except in the lower
piimaiy classes, and the former rates of fees in other schools have been
raised all round. For the benefit of children of artisans and agii-
culturists above 15, night schools have been opened, of which there
are 67, with 1,500 pupils, most of them in the east, but some in
all Districts. There are local committees for the control of all
and village schools.

The first girls’ schools were established by European missionaiy
ladies at Bangalore in 1840 Mission giils’ schools were opened later
in some of the large towns. In 1868 the Government began with one
in Bangalore, and as years went on the number increased all over
the countiy. The /loM schools established in 1868 received both
boys and girls togethei. Owing to the early marriage system, which
did not admit of girls staying beyond the age of ten, and the entiie
want of female teachers, the girls’ schools were really infant schools
But the mission schools had an advantage in both respects, being
able to keep their girls longer, and to provide native Christian women
as teachers.

One of the steps that gave an impetus to public female education
was the establishment at Mysore city of the Maharanfs Girls’ School
in 1881. This was confined to high-caste girls, and, with an unstinted
expenditure, gave a free education Its influential patronage overcame
all objections, and it presented an acceptable compromise between
Western methods and Eastern views as to the appropriate subjects
of female education. It has for some years had Lady Superintendents
from Girton or Newnham, and in 1902 was formed into a college,
affiliated to the Madras University. Two Brahman students took the
B A. degree m 1906. Admission is also now allowed of Christians
and girls of low castes, provided they are of respectable family and
approved by the management. By liberal scholarships girls have been
induced to stay longer at school, and female teachers have been trained
from among young widows, of whom there are at piesent ten adult
and fourteen child-widows. The management is m the hands of a
committee, and local committees have been appointed for girls’ schools

EDUCATION 245

in other parts of the country. These are, however, reported to take
little interest in the matter as a lule.

In 1881, 1891, and 1901 respectively theie were 46, 113, and 230
girls’ colleges and schools, the percentage of giils under instruction
to the female population of school-going age being o8r, 3-14, and
4*2 2. In 1904 there were 243 schools, and the proportion was 4 per
cent The State funds contributed lakhs (of which Rs. 38,000 was
for the MaharanI’s College), and Local and municipal funds Rs. 6,800,
to female education in 1903-4. The high school classes learn English
as a fiist language. In the highest class of the middle school English
is begun as a second language. Zanana teaching is carried on by
ladies of the Church of England Zanana Mission in Bangalore, Mysore
city, and Channapatna, chiefly among Musalman families.

There are State normal schools at Mysore city, Kolar, and Shimoga,
for training teachers , also a training department in the MaharanI’s
College State industrial schools are at work in Mysore and Hassan,
mission industrial schools at Tumkur and Kolar, with one for girls at
Hassan, and a private industrial school at Melukote. The industrial
school at Mysore has recently been reorganized ^ and placed under an
experienced Superintendent, who also inspects the other industrial
schools in the State. An engineering school has been established at
Mysore, for training subordinates for the Public Works depaitment.
Weaving schools have been opened at Hole-Narsipur, Dod-Ballapur,
Chiknayakanhalli, and Molakalmura, with carpentry and drawing classes
attached, Theie are altogether eighteen industrial schools, of which
six are 'weaving schools. A school has been established at Channapatna
for the revival of the decaying local industries of lacquer-woik, and the
preparation of steel wire for the strings of musical instruments Com-
mercial classes are conducted at Bangalore by certain officials, and
receive aid from Government Students are attached to the laboratories
of the Agncultural Chemist, the State Geologist, and the State Bacteri-
ologist, and also to the silk faim established by Mr. Tata, and to the
\rorkshops of the Southern Mahratta Railway. Those at the silk farm
are village schoolmasters, of whom five are trained annually, and then
appointed as inspectors of sericulture. State scholarships are given to
students from Mysore learning electricity at New York, forestry at
Oxford, and in the Teachers’, Engineer ing, Medical, and Veterinary
colleges of Madras or Bombay, in the Victoria Jubilee Institute and
schools of Art at those places, and in the Forest School at Dehra Dun.
One-fifth of the income from the Damodar Das Chanty Fund, yielding
about Rs. 20,000 a year, has been assigned for scholarships to Gujarati
students selected by a committee — nine to those studying for the

^ The Pnnce of Wales, on his recent visit to Mysore, laid the foundation stone
of new buildings for it, to be called the Chamarajendra Industrial Institute,

246

MYSORE STATE

Bombay University examinations, one for a student of engmeeiing or
agiiculture, and one for medicine. The remaining four-fifths are
intended for post-graduate scholarships. One has been granted to a
student for the history and economics tripos at Cambridge, and one
to a student for the M.B. and C.M. course at Edinburgh, with a special
view to piactical microscope work. An institution of a special nature
deserving of notice is the school for deaf-mutes and the blind at
Mysore city, managed by a committee.

Most of the institutions for Europeans and Eurasians are in the Civil
and Military Station of Bangalore, but the returns do not include regi-
mental schools under the Army department. The number of pupils in
the public schools was 1,314 in 1904. In the rest of the State there
were 361, the majority being at the Urigam school on the Kolar Gold
Fields. St. Joseph’s College did well m the First Arts and matricula-
tion. One Euiopean girl has passed the B.A. degree examination in
English and French, and two the F.A. from the Sacred Heart and the
Central College The popular callings for young men are in the railway
and telegraph departments, and the engineering and medical professions.
Girls become nurses and governesses.

The number of Muhammadan pupils m all schools was 4,330 in
1881, 10,185 in 1891, 14,612 in 1901, and 13,383 (10,454 boys and
2,929 girls) in 1904. Six passed ceitain branches of the B.A. examina-
tion, one the First Arts, and one the matriculation. Only half-fees
are levied from Muhammadan boys in all schools, and girls are free
There are also twenty-six scholarships allotted for Muhammadan stu-
dents in the Central College, to encourage English education among
them. Owing to the dearth of qualified teachers, the village Hindu-
stani schools are in a very poor condition. In 1904 there were 15
Muhammadans attending colleges, 3,581 in secondary schools, and
8,848 m primary schools. Some have received scholarships at the
M.A.O. college at Aligarh.

An interesting effort has been made to introduce education among
the Lambanis. In all, 12 schools have been opened for them — 7 in
Shimoga District, and the others in Tumkur, Chitaldroog, and Hassan
Districts. They were attended in 1904 by 235 boys and 10 girls. Foi
the low castes or Panchamas theie are 70 schools, with 1,910 pupils,
of whom 277 are giils.

The proportion of the population of school-going age under in-
struction was II in i88r, 9 in 1891, 14 in 1901, and 13 in 1904. At
the Census of 1901 the proportion of the population able to read and
write was 5 06 per cent., being 9-27 per cent, for males, and 0-77 for
females. The cities and the Gold Fields have the highest percentage ,
and of the Districts, Kadur stands highest and Mysore lowest.
Shimoga, next to Kadur, has the highest percentage of literate males.

EDUCATION

247

and Tumkur of literate females. The scale of fees in State colleges
and schools was raised m 1904 to the following monthly rates : Village
schools, lower primary, free , upper, i anna ; middle, 2 annas. Taluk
schools, lower pnmary, 2 annas ; upper, 3 annas , middle, 4 annas
English middle schools, 8 annas, 12 annas, R. i, Rs. 1-4, and
Rs. 1-8, according to class. English high schools, Rs 2 and
Rs. 2-8 , F.A. class, Rs. 4 , B.A. class, Rs. 5.

Expenditure on Educational Institutions maintained

OR AIDED BY PUBLIC FUNDS IN 1903-4

Provincial

funds

District

and

municipal

funds

Fees

Other

sources

Total

Arts and professional

colleges .

Training and special

1.34. 105

596

r ,433

2,344

1.44,378

schools

32.536

28,529

51,098

2 , 9^3

33.334

97,312

Secondary boys' schools

1,86,249

8o,to8

22,656

3.40,111

2,15,849

Primary boys' schools
Girls' schools

29,281

1,71,167

4,680

858

10.731

1,03,529

6,808

38,027

1,49.222

Total

4.85.700

2.58.198

95,992

1,06,982

9,46.872

Colleges, Schools, and Scholars

Institutions

i88q-i

I900-I

1903-4

Scholars.

Scholars

Scholars.

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

Public,

Arts colleges

129

504

546

Secondary schools—

Upper (High)

533

3,160

2,651

X^ower (Middle)

129

2,292

233

21,333

2,838

249

19,212

3.899

Primary schools

869

36,656

2,48s

1,946

52,118

13,37s

1,892

47,496

12,015

Training schools

974

158

147

Other special schools

•

1,380

1,670

120

Private

Advanced

224

188

Elementary

1,753

20,770

459

1,567

17,965

313

Total

1,027

40,584

2,532

4,009

99.647

16,821

3,798

89,875

16,401

Among the oldest newspapers in the vernacular were the Kasim~ul
Akhhdr in Hindustani, staited in 1863, and still published ; and the
Karnataka Prakdsika in Kanarese, begun in 1865 but discontinued
at the end of 1898, the editor and proprietor having fallen an early
victim to plague.

248

MYSORE STATE

The number of newspapeis and periodicals published in the State
in 1901 was ii in English, 7 in the vernaculars, and 3 in both English
and vernacular. A third of the whole treat of politics. There are five
English papeis with a circulation of from 200 to 500, the principal
being the Daily Post (Bangalore). All these give general news. Of
the Kanarese papers, the Wesleyan Vnttanta Pat 7 'ika (Mysore weekly)
and Mahildsakht for women (Mysore monthly) have considerable circu-
lations Their Harvest Field (Mysore monthly) in English is also
popular. The Nadegannadi (Bangalore), Suryodaya (Bangalore), Vrii-
tdnta Chintdmam (Mysore), are Kanarese weeklies, with circulations
varying from 1,000 to 500, and give general and political news. In
Hindustani are the Kdsim-ul-Akhbdr (bi-weekly), and the Edward
Gazette^ an old paper under a new name (weekly), both published in
Bangalore, and treating of general and political news. The Tamil
paper is the Tar aka (Bangalore bi-weekly), with a circulation of 200
Of the Kanaiese monthly periodicals, Vidydddyini is a journal of
education. Karnataka Grantkamdld publishes new works, and Kar?id-
taka Kdvyakaldnidhi prints old unpublished works. All these are
issued in Mysore city

The number of books registered in 1901 was 30, exclusive of official
publications, such as the volumes of inscriptions issued by the Archaeo-
logical department. There were 3 in English, 23 in Kanarese, i in
Telugu, and 3 in Sanskrit and Kanarese. The subjects chiefly treated
of come under the heads of religion, fiction, and history. The principal
onginal works were four, of which two were based on the Ramayana
story, one was an allegory on virtue and vice, and the other was a com-
position by a wife of the Maharaja who died in 1868, on the reputed
marriage of a Musalman princess of Delhi to Cheluvaraya or Krishna,
the god at Melukote, said to have taken place in the thirteenth
century.

The Victoria (opened 1900) in Bangalore city, the Bowring in the
Civil and Military Station, and the General Hospitals at Mysore and
Medical Shimoga, are first-class hospitals. Before the Victoria
was opened, St. Martha’s Hospital, founded by the
Lady Superior of the Convent of the Good Shepherd, took the place
of a civil hospital for Bangalore city. Second-class hospitals exist at
the Distnct head-quarters, and Local fund dispensaries at all taluk
head-quarters and large towns. A Medical School was established in
1882 for training subordinates, but was given up in 1886 in favour
of paying students to attend the large and well-equipped Medical
Colleges at Madras and Bombay. A local medical service was
organized in 1884 and improved in 1897.

For women and children there are the Maharani’s Hospital at
Mysoie, the Maternity at Bangalore, the Lady Curzon in connexion

MEDICAL

249

with the Bownng, and the Gosha Hospital of the Zanana Mission.
Native midwives are supplied to all the taluks ^ who have been trained
m the Lying-in Hospital at Madras, or in classes at the hospitals in
Bangalore and Mysore city.

Medical Statistics

1881

1S91

IQOI

1904

Hospitals,

Number of civil hospitals and
pensaries

dib-

Jt34

135

Average daily number of —

(a) In-patients

•

19987

177 14

422 39

690 05

(^) Out-patients

1,463-92

3.740 41

6,413 17

5,985 75

Income from —

{a) Government payments

Rs.

62,257

87.625

2,74.389

3,57,507

lb) Local and municipal
ments

pay-

5.556

40,642

52,568

55,862

(t) Fees, endowments, and other
sources . . . . Rs

148

662

Expenditure on —

(a) Establishment

4 '.741

86,415

2,18,123

2,47,842

(b) Medicines, diet, buildings,
&c Rs.

27,072

41.852

1,08,983

1,66,199

Lunatic Asylums.

Number of asylums .

Average daily number of —

{cC) Criminal lunatics

893

24.19

4043

40.15

(3) Other lunatics

131.07

160.81

217 57

237 80

Income from —

(fl) Government payments

25,590

\li) Fees and other sources

Rs.

^34

317

Expenditure on —

(^35) Establishment

15.831

4.986

6,074

4,786

(b) Diet, buildings, &c .

11.795

21,148

21,121

Vacc 7 natzo 7 i.

Number of successful operations

79.375

90,075

66,183

60,731

Total expenditure on vaccmation

10.998

24.381

20,822

21,109

Cost per successful case .

Rs.

0-1-9

0-5-1 1

j>.

Note — The figures do not include the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore The drop
m vaccination in igoi is the effect of plague

There is a Lunatic Asylum at Bangalore, in which at the end of
1903 there were 228 male and 86 female patients. During the year
24 were discharged as cured, and ii as improved, while 23 died. The
lunatics are employed in weaving cloth and kambhs^ spinning, and
gardening. In the Leper Asylum there were ii male and 6 female
lepers.

For vaccination there are 96 taluk and 9 municipal vaccmators,
besides the medical subordinates, and supervision is exercised by

250

MYSORE STATE

9 inspectors Vaccination is compulsory among State servants and
school children*. Owing to the difficulties in the way of procuring
good infant lymph for vaccination, a Vaccine Institute was established
at Bangalore m 1892 for preparing lymph from the calf, in lanoline.

In 1896 an Eye Infirmary was established, and in 1899 a well-
equipped Bacteriological Institute. Quinine was sold in 1904 in 3,426
packets, containing 102 powders of five grains each, at 418 post offices.
The dose was raised in 1905 to seven grains, and it is pioposed to sell
through the village officials as well.

Sanitation has received special attention in the towns ; but in
villages only the improvement and conservancy of the water-supply
have been looked to, and the removal of manure pits from the
immediate proximity of the dwellings insisted upon. The peremptoiy
evacuation of villages on the occurrence of plague has inclined the
people in some parts to build and permanently remain on the spots in
their fields where they have been camped.

The topographical survey of the State was completed in 1886. The
revenue survey was commenced in 1863 and the settlement brought
to an end in 1901 The system followed is that of
Bombay, as already explained (pp. 214, 234). The
area surveyed includes the whole of the State, or 29,433 square miles
The maintenance of the survey records is also the duty of the Survey
department

[B. Lewis Rice • Mysore (revised edition, 1897) — Lewin B. Bowring
Haidar AU and Tipu Sultan (Rulers of India series, 1893); Eastern
Experiences — Dr. Francis Buchanan: A Journey froin Madras

through the Countries of Mysore^ Canara, and Malabar (1807 , Madras
reprint, 1870) — Major Mark Wilks : Historical Sketches of the South of
India^ in an Attempt to trace the History of My soor (3 vols , 1810-17 ;
Madras reprint, 1869).]

Mysore District. — District in the south of the State of Mysore,
lying between ii^ 36' and 13° 3' N. and 75° 55' and 77° 20' E., with
an area of 5,496 square miles. It is bounded on the north by Hassan
and Tumkur Districts ; on the east by Bangalore and the Coimbatore
District of Madras ; on the south by the Nilgiri and Malabar Districts
of Madras ; and on the west by Coorg. **

The river Cauvery, besides forming the boundary for some distance
both on the west and east, traverses the District from north-west to

Physical

aspects.

east, receiving as tributaries the Hemavati, Loka-
pavani, and Shimsha on the north, and the Lak&hman-
tirtha, Kabbani, and Honnu-hole or Suvarnavati on

the south. Lofty mountain langes covered with vast forests, the home

^ A Regulation passed in 1906 makes vaccination compulsory throughout ‘notified
areas.’

MYSORE DISTRICT

^ 5 ^

of the elephant, shut in the westein, southern, and some parts of the
eastern frontier. The only bieak in this mighty baiiier is in the south'
east, where the Cauvery takes its course towards the lowlands and
hurls itself down the Cauvery Falls, called Gagana Chukki and Bhar
Chukki, at the island of Sivasamudrani. The principal range of hills
within the District is the Biligiri-Rangan in the south-east, rising to
5,091 feet above the level of the sea. Next to these, the isolated hills
of Gopalswami in the south (4,770 feet), and of Bettadpur in the
north-west (4,389 feet), are the most prominent heights, with the
Chamundi hill (3,489 feet) to the south-east of Mysoie city. The
French Rocks (2,882 feet), north of Senngapatam, are conspicuous
points of a line culminating in the sacred peak of Melukote (3,579
feet). Short ranges of low hills appear along the south, especially in
the south-west On the east are encountered the hills which separate
the valleys of the Shimsha and Aikavati, among w^hich Kabbaldurga
(3,507 feet) has gained an unenviable notoriety foi unhealthiness.

Mysore District may be described as an undulating table-land,
feitilc and w’ell w'ateied by perennial riveis, w^hose w'aters, dammed by
noble and ancient anicuts, enrich their banks by means of canals.
Heie and there granite locks lise from the plain, wdiich is otherwise
unbroken and well wooded The extieme south forms a tarai of dense
and valuable but unhealthy forest, occupying the depiession w^hich
runs along the foot of the Nilgiri mountains. The lowest part of this
IS the lemarkable long, steep, tiench-like rd\ine, sometimes called the
Mysore Ditch, which foims the boundaiy on this side, and m which
flows the Moyai. The irrigated fields, supplied by the numerous
channels drawn from the Cau\eiy and its tributaries, co'ver many
parts W'lth rich \erdure. Within this Distiict alone there aie twenty-
seven dams, the channels drawn from which have a total length of
807 miles, yielding a revenue of 5^ lakhs.

The geological foimation is principally of gianite, gneiss, quartz, and
hoinblende. In many places these strata aie overlaid with laterite.
Stone for masoniy, principally common granite, is abundant throughout
the District. Black hornblende of infenor quality and potstone aie
also found. Quartz is plentiful, and is chiefly used for road-metallmg.
Dikes of felsites and porphyries occur abundantly in the neighbourhood
of Senngapatam, and a few elsewhere. They vary from fine-grained
hornstones to porphyries containing numerous phenocrysts of white to
pink felspar, in a matrix w^hich may be pale green, pink, red, browm,
or almost black. The majority of the porphyries foim handsome
building stones, and some have been made use of in the new palace at
Mysoic. Corundum occurs in the Hunsur tahik. In Singaramaran-
halli the corundum beds were found to be associated with an intrusion
of olivine-bearing rocks, similai to those of the Chalk Hills near Salem,

VOT XVTTT T>

MYSORE DISTRICT

252

and large masses of a rock composed of a highly ferriferous enstatite,
with magnetite and iron-alumma spinel or hercynue

The trees in the extensive forest tract along the southern and
western boundary aie not only rich in species, but attain a large size.
Of teak {Tectona grandis) theie are several laige plantations. Other
trees include Shorea Talitra, Pterocarpus Marsiipiuw^ Terminaha
iome/ifosa, Lage}stroemia hinceolata, and Anogeissus latifoha^ which aie
conspicuous and veiy abundant in the Muddamullai forest. In
Febiuary most of these trees aie bare of leaf, and represent the
deciduous belt In open glades skiiting the forests and descending
the Bhandipur ghat are plants of a varied description. Ba?nbiisa
arundinacea occurs in beautiful clunijis at frequent intervals. There
are also Heiicteres Isora^ Hibiscus Abe/moschus, and many others.
Capparis grandiflora is most attractive in the Bhandipui forest, and
there is also a species without thorns Clusters of parasites, such as
Viscum orientah^ hang fiom many trees On the Kaiabi-kanave range
farther north the glasses Andropogon perfusin and Anthistina ciliaia
attain an abnormal size, and are often difficult to penetrate. Ferns,
mosses, and lichens aie abundant m the rainy season. There are also
a few orchids. The heaviest foiest jungle is about Kakankote in the
south-west The Biligiri-Rangan range in the south-east possesses
an inteiesting flora with special features. The growth includes sandal-
wood, satin-wood [Chloroxylon Swieieuta), Polyalthia urasoidei>^ and
otheis The babul (Acacia arabicd) attracts attention by the road-side
and in cultivated fields Hedgeiows of Euphorbia Tiritcalli^ Jatropha
Cincas, and Vitex JVcginido are not uncommon. In the poorest scrub
tracts Phoenix farinifeia is often gregarious The growth in the parks
at Mysore city is not so luxuriant as at Bangalore, where the soil is
richer j but m the matter of species it is much the same. The floia
of Chamundi, which is a stony hill, 1^5 limited m species and poor in
growth Clinging to the rivers and canals are found such plants as
Cfinum seylamca, Sahx tetrasperma^ and Panda nus odoraiissinws.

The mean temperature and diurnal range at Mysore city in January
aie 73° and 25°, in May, Si'* and 23°, in July, 75° and 16°; in
November, 73° and 18°. The climate is generall) healthy, but inter-
mittent fevers prevail duiing the cold months. The annual rainfall
aveiages 33 inches. The w’ettest month is October, with a fall of
8 inches, then May, with 6; and next September, with 5 inches.

The earliest traditional knowdedge wx have relating to this District
goes back to the time of the Maurya emperor, Chandra Gupta, in the
fourth century b.c. At that time a State named
^ ‘ Punnata occupied the south-w^est. After the death

of Bbadrabahu at Sravana Belgola, the Jam emigrants whom he had
led from Ujjain in the north, Chandra Gupta being his chief disciple,

HISTORY

253

passed on to this tract. It is mentioned by Ptolemy, and its capital
Kitthipura has been identified with KittQr on the Kabbani, in the
Heggadadevankote taluk. The next mention concerns Asoka, who is
said to have sent Buddhist missionaries in 245 13 . c. to Vanavasi on
the north-west of the State, and to Mahisa-mandala, which undoubtedly
means the Mysore country. After the rise of the Ganga power, their
capital was established in the third century a. d. at Talakad on the
Cauvery. They are said to have had an earlier capital, at Skandapura,
supposed to be Gazalhatti, on the Moyar, near its junction with the
Bhavani , but this is doubtful. In the fifth century the Ganga king
married the Punnata king’s daughter, and Punnata was soon after
absorbed into the Ganga kingdom. In the eighth century the Rashtra-
kutas oveicame and imprisoned the Ganga king, appointing their own
viceroys over his territories But he was eventually restored, and
intermarriages took place between the two families. In the tenth
century the Ganga king assisted the Rashtrakutas m their wai with
the Cholas. In 1004 the Cholas invaded Mysore under Rajendra
Chola, and, capturing Talakad, brought the Ganga power to an end.
They subdued all the countiy up to the Cauvery, from Coorg 111 the
west to Sermgapatam in the east, and gave to this District the name
Mudikondacholamandalam

Meanwhile the Hoysalas had risen to pow^ei m the Western Ghats,
and made Dorasamudra (Halebid in Hassan District) their capital.
About 1116 the Hoysala king, Vishnuvaidhana, took Talakad and
expelled the Cholas from all parts of Mysore. He had been converted
from the Jam faith by the Vaishnava reformer Ramanuja, and bestowed
upon him the Ashtagrama or ‘ eight townships,’ with all the lands
north and south of the Cauvery near Sermgapatam. The Hoysalas
lemained the dominant power till the fourteenth century. The
Muhammadans from the north then captured and destroyed Dora-
samudra, and the king retired at first to Tondanur (Tonnur, north of
Seringapatam). But in 1336 was established the Vijayanagar empire,
which speedily became pai amount throughout the South. One of the
Saluva family, from whom the short-lived second dynasty aiose, is said
to have built the great temple at Seringapatam. But Naiasinga, the
founder of the Narasinga or third dynasty, seized Seringapatam about
1495 by damming the Cauvery and crossing over it when in full flood.
Later on, Ganga Raja, the Ummattur chief, rebelled at Sivasamudram
and was put dowm by Krishna Raya, in 15 ii. Eventually the Mysore
countiy was administered for Vijayanagar by a viceioy called the Sri
Ranga Rayal, the seat of whose government was at Seringapatam.
Among the feudal estates under his control m this part were Mysore,
Kalale, and Ummattur in the south, and the Changalva kingdom in
the west. After the overthrow of Vijayanagar by the Muhammadans

254

MYSORE DISTRICT

in 1565, the viceroy’s authoiity declined^ and the feudatories began
to assume independence At length in 1610 he retired, broken down
in health, to die at Talakad, and Raja Wodeyar of Mysore gained
possession of Seringapatam. This now became the Mysore capital,
and the lessei estates to the south were absorbed into the Mysoie
kingdom. Seringapatam was seveial times besieged b) vaiious enemies,
but without success. From 1761 to 1799 the Mysore throne was held
by the Muhammadan usurpeis, Haidar All and Tipu Sultan. During
this period several wars took place with the British, in the couise of
which Haidar All died and finally Tipu Sultan was killed. The
Mysoie family was then restored to powei by the British, and Mysore
again became the capital in place of Seringapatam Owing to con-
tinuous misrule, resulting in a rebellion of the people, the Mysore
Raja was deposed in 1831 and the country administered by a British
Commission. This continued till 188 r, when Mysore was again
entrusted, under suitable guarantees, to the ancient Hindu d} nasty

Of aichitectuial monuments the piincipal one is the Somnathpur
temple, the best existing complete example of the Chalukyan style.
It was built in 1269, undei the Hoysalas. It is a triple temple, and
Feigusson considered the sculptuie to be moie peifect than at Beltir
and Halebld. Other notable examples of the same style aie the
temples at Basaialu, built in 1235, and one at Kikkeri, built in 1171.
The tall pillars of the temple in Agiahara Bachahalli are of mteiest.
They are of the thirteenth centuiy, and on the capital of each stands
the figure of an elephant, with Garuda as the mahaut^ and three 01
four people riding on it As good examples of the Diavidian style
may be mentioned the temples at Seringapatam, Nanjangud, and on
the Chamundi hill. Of Muhammadan buildings the most notew'orthy
are the Gunibaz 01 mausoleum of Haidar and Tipu at Ganjam, and
the Daiya Daulat summer palace at Seringapatam Of the lattei,
Mr Rees, who has travelled much in Persia and India, says -

‘The lavish decorations, which co\er every inch of wall fiom first to
last, from top to bottom, recall the palaces of Ispahan, and resemble
nothing that I kno\v in India.’

Attention may also be directed to the bridges of purely Hindu style
and construction at Seringapatam and Sivasamudiam. The numerous
inscriptions of the Disti ict have been translated and published

The population at each Census in the last thirty yeais was:
(1871) 1,104,808, (1881) 1,032,658, (1891) 1,181,814, and (1901)

Po Illation ^ 5 ^ 95 ?^ 7 ^’ decrease in 1881 w^as due to the

famine of 1876-8. By religion, m 1901 there were
15232,958 Hindus, 49,484 Musalmans, 6,987 Animists, 3,707 Christians,
2,006 Jains, and 30 Parsis. I'he density of population was 235 persons
per square mile, that foi the State being 185. The number of towns

POPULATION 255

is 27, and of villages 3,212. Mysore, the chief town (population,
68,111), IS the only place with moie than 20,000 inhabitants.

The following table gives the principal statistics of population in
1901 : —

Number of

Population.

D. U

® CpQ « .

V " „

' 0

0 1^53

Taluk

Area m sq
miles

1 owns

Villages.

Populatior
square m

bflC goo 0
rt 0 0 ON

1 35 S-o

Number
persons ab
read an
write

Mysore

306

163

133,840

438

— 06

'+,858

Hnnsur .

660

412

1 13,028

176

+ 23

3,280

Yedatore

236

177

82,330

349

4-109

2,915

Kii>hnarajpet

425

373

102,816

242

-1- 12*4

3,141

Nagamangala .

401

366

76,581

T91

■H 10 6

2 449

Mandya

450

300

ii5».^74

257

+ 15 s

3,204

Seringapatam

274

210

88,691

323

-h 40

4.580

Malavaih.

Tinimakudal

391

231

101,779

260

+ 185

2,531

Nai&ipur

225

125

87,680

389

4 90

2.627

NanjangGd

384

206

108,173

281

+ 12 5

3,034

Yelandiii jcigir .

102

35»27^

345

+ TM

1.145

3.582

Chamrajnagar .

487

190

110,196

747897

226

+ 149

Gun dal pet
Heggadadevan-

535

155

>37

+ 19*7

2.199

kote

620

276

61,416

+ 03

T.726

Distiia total

5.49*5

-27

3 l 2 II

1,295,172

+ 96

51.271

The Wokkahgas or cultivatois are the strongest caste in numbeis,
their total being 320,000. Next come the outcaste Holeyas and
Madigas, of ^^hom there aie 194,000 and 25,000; the Lingayats,
numbering 173,000, Kurubas or shepherds, 127,000, Besta or fisher-
men, 10,200. The total of Biahmans is 43,000. Among Musalmans,
the Sharlfs form nearly seven-tenths, being 29,000. The nomad
Korama number 2,500, wild Kuruba, 2,300, and Iruhga, t,6oo.
About 74 per cent, of the total aie engaged in agriculture and pastuie ;
8 per cent, each in unskilled labour not agricultural, and m the
preparation and supply of material substances, 2*5 per cent, in the
State service, and 2 4 per cent in personal sei vices , i 9 per cent in
commerce, transport, and stoiage , and i 8 per cent, in professions.

The Christians in the District number 3,700, of whom 2,200 aie
111 Mysore city The total includes 3,300 natives. Early in the
eighteenth centuiy a Roman Catholic chapel was built at Heggada-
devankote, but the priest w^as beaten to death by the people. A chapel
at Seringapatam, which was courageously defended by the Christian
troops, escaped the destiuction of all Christian chuiches ordered by
Tipii Sultan. After the downfall of the latter m 1799, the well-known
Abbe Dubois took charge, and founded the mission at Mysore, where
laige churches, schools, and convents are in existence. The London

256

MYSORE DISTRICT

and Wesleyan Missions began work at Mysore in 1839, but the former
retired in 1850 The Wesleyans have churches, a college, schools for
boys and girls, and a piinting press, and are building a large hospital
for women and children

Red soil prevails throughout the District, while one of the most
valuable tracts of the more fertile black soil in the
Agriculture. j^ns through the south-east in the Chamraj-

nagar taluk and the Yelandur jagir.

The following table gives statistics of cultivation in 1903-4 —

Taluk

Area, m square miles, shown in the revenue accounts

Total

Cultivated

Irrigated

Forests

Cultiv able
waste

Mysore

260

153

Hnnsui

620

213

Vedatore .

200

145

KnshnarajpeL .

182

Nagamangala

372

157

Mandya

41 2

225

I I

Scnngapatam

246

139

Malavalli .

329

175

Tiiumakudal-Naiaipur

I ()7

i25

Nanjangud

314

190

Chamrajnagar

398

161

Gundalpet .

544

167

177

Heggadadevankote

592

iiS

199

Total

4,826

•0

209

647

The crops, both ‘wet’ and ‘dry,’ are classed under two heads,
according to the season in which they are grown, kain and kdr. The
season for sowing both ‘wet’ and ‘dry’ ham crops opens in July, that
for sowing kd?‘ ‘ wet crops ’ in September, and for kdr ‘ dry crops ’ in
April. It is only near a fe\v rain-fed tanks in the east that both hmn
and kdr crops are now' obtained from the same ‘wet’ lands in the yeai.
On ‘ dry ’ lands it is usual to grow two crops m the year, the second
being a minor grain, if the land is fertile enough to beai it But of
grains which form the staple food, such as rdgi and jo/a, the land w ill
only produce one ciop as a rule, and consequently the lyots are obliged
to choose betw'een a hai7i or kdr crop. In the north the former is
preferred, because the growth is there more influenced by the monsoon
But in the south a kdr crop is found more suitable, because the springs
and frequent lain afford a toleiable supply of water all the year round,
w'hereas the south-west monsoon, which falls with greater force on the
forest land, would render ploughing in June laborious Rdgi in
1903-4 occupied 873 square miles ^ gram, 521 , other food-grains, 560 ;
rice, 184, oilseeds, 159, garden produce, 27, sugar-cane, 10.

Coffee cultivation has been tried, the most successful being in the

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS

257

Biligiri-Rangan region. Much attention has been paid to mulberry
cultivation in the east, 111 connexion with the rearing of silkworms.
During the twelve years ending 1904 Rs. 29,000 was advanced as
agricultural loans for land impiovement, and Rs. 16,500 for field
embankments.

The area irrigated fioni canals is 122 square miles, from tanks and
wells 72, and from othei sources 15 The length of channels drawn
from rivers is 807 miles, and the number of tanks 1,834, of which 157
are classed as ‘majoi.’

The south and west are occupied by continuous heavy forest,
described in the paragraph on Botany The State foiests m 1904
coveied an area of 521 square miles, ‘reserved’ lands 81, and planta-
tions 8. Teak, sandal-wood, and bamboos, with other kinds of timber,
are the chief sources of forest revenue. The forest receipts in 1903-4
amounted to nearly 5 lakhs.

Gold-mmmg, expeiimentally begun at the Amble and Wolageie
blocks near Nanjangiid, has been abandoned. Prospecting for gold
has also been tried near Bannur. Iron abounds in the locky hills
throughout the District, but is w'orked only in the Heggadadevankote
and Malavalli ialttks. The non of Malavalli is considered the best in
the State Stones containing magnetic iron are occasionally turned
up by the ploughshare near Devanur in the Nanjangud taluk Talc
IS found in several places, and is used for putting a gloss on baubles
employed in coienionies. It occupies the lents and small veins in
decomposing quartz, but its laminae are not large enough to serve for
other purposes. Asbestos is found in abundance in the Chamrajnagai
taluk. Nodules of flint called thakmukki are found in the east, and
w^ere formerly used for gun-flints

Cotton cloth, blankets, brass utensils, earthen w^are, and jaggeiy
(unrefined sugar) from both cane and date, are the principal manu-
factures. There is also some silk-weaving. The best
cloth IS made at Mysore and_ Ganjam. At Hunsur con^unic^fons.
factories w^ere formerly maintained in connexion with
the Commissariat, consisting of a blanket factory, a tanneiy and leather
factory, and a w’ood-yard where carts and w^agons were built. Although
these ha\e been abolished, their influence in local manufactures re-
mains. Nearly all the country carts of the District are made heie.
There are also extensive coffee-ivorks and saw-mills, under European
management The number of looms or small works reported for the
District are- silk, 50; cotton, 4,267, wool, 2,400, other fibres, 862,
wood, 200 , non, 360 , oil-mills, 857; sugar and jaggery mills, 360.

A great demand exists foi gram lequired on the west coast and in
Coimbatoie, and the Nilgiri market derives a portion of its supplies
from this District There is also con'^idcrable trade with Bangaloie

25 ^

MYSORE DISTRICT

and Madras. Many of the tradeis aie Musalmans, and on the Nllgiii
load Lambams are largely employed m trade. The large inerchantsj
who live chiefly in Mysore city, aie for the most part of the Kunchigar
caste. They employ agents throughout the Distiict to buy up the
gram, in many cases giving half the price in advance before the harvest
is reaped A few men with capital are thus able to some extent to
regulate the market. Much of the trade of the country is earned on
by means of weekly fairs, which are largely resorted to; and at
Chunchankatte in the Yedatore taluk there is an annual fair w^hich
lasts foi a month. Upon these the rural population are mainly
dependent for supplies. The most valuable exports are grain, oilseeds,
sugar, and jaggery; and the most valuable impoits are silk cloths, rice,
salt, piece-goods, ghl^ cotton and cotton thread, and areca-nuts.

The Mysore State Raihvay from Bangalore to NanjangCid runs for
6 1 miles through the District from the north-east to the centre. The
length of Provincial roads is 330 miles, and of District fund loads
539 miles

The District is virtually secured against famine by the extensive
system of irrigation canals drawm from the Cauvery
and its tributaries In 1900 some test w^orks for
relief were opened for a short time in the Mandya taluk

The District is divided into fourteen taluks Cham rajn agar, Gun-
PALPET, Heggadadevankote, Hunsur, Krishnarajpet, Malavali.i,
Mandya, Mysore, Nagamangala, Nanjangud,
Seeing apatam, Tirumakudal-Narsipur, Yeda-
tore, and the Yelandur ja^r. It is undei a Deputy-Commissioner,
and subject to^his contiol the taluks have been formed into the follow-
ing groups in charge of Assistant Commissioners . Mysore, Seringa-
patam, Mandya, and Malavalli, with head-quarteis,at French Rocks;
Nagamangala and Krishnarajpet, with head-quaiters at Knshnaiajpet ;
Chamrajnagar, Nanjangud, Gundalpet, and Tirumakudal-Narsipui,
with head-quarters at Nanjangud, Heggadadevankote, Hunsur, and
Yedatore, with head-quarters at Mysore city.

There are Distiict and Subordinate Judge’s courts at Mysore city,
whose jurisdiction extends over Hassan District, besides two Munsifs’
courts ; in addition, there are Munsifs at Seiingapatam and Nanjangud.
Dacoity is not infrequent ^

The land revenue and total revenue aie shown below, in thousands
of rupees : —

Famine.

Administration.

18S0-1

1890-1

1900-1

1903-4

Land le venue

Total revenue ,

10 , 0 'J

15.00

29,06

19,01

33,40

19,20

34.75

MYSORE TALUK

2S9

The revenue survey and settlement were introduced in the west
in 1884, in the north and east between 1886 and 1890, m the south
between 1891 and 1896. The incidence of land revenue per acre
of cultivated area in 1903-4 was Rs. r-4-6. The average assessment
per acre on ‘dry^ land is R. 0-12-1 (maximum scale Rs. 2-4,
minimum scale R, o-i)^ on ‘wet’ land, Rs. 5-3-Ti (maximum scale
Rs. ir, minimum scale R. 0-4); on garden land, Rs 3-15-6
(maumum scale Rs. 15, minimum scale Rs. 1-8).

In 1903-4, besides the Mysore city municipal board, there were
seventeen municipalities — Hunsur, Chamrajnagai, Yedatoie, Heggada-
devankote, Gundalpet, Nanjangud, Tiiumaktidal-Narsipur, Pinyapatna,
Bannur, Talakad, Seiingapatam, Mand5^a, Knshnaiajpet, Malavalli,
Nagamangala, Melukote, and French Rocks — with a total income of
Rs 47,000, and an expenditure of Rs 42,000 ; and also 8 village
Unions, converted in 1904 from previously existing minor munici-
palities — Saigur, Sosale, Saligrama, Mirle, Kalale, Maddur, Palhalli,
and Kikkeii — with a total income and expenditure of Rs. 10,000 and
Rs. 18,000. Outside the municipal areas, local affairs are managed by
the District and fa/nk boards, which had an income of 1-5 lakhs in
1903-4 and spent r*i lakhs, including Rs 86,000 on roads and buildings.

The police force in 1903-4 included 2 superior officers, 181 sub-
ordinate officers, and 1,210 constables Of these, 46 officers and
275 constables formed the city police; and 3 officers and 49 constables
the special reserve. The Mysore District jail has accommodation for
447 prisoners. The daily average in 1904 was 200. In the 14 lock-ups
the average daily number of pusoners was 17.

The percentage of literate persons m 1901 was 20 r for the city and
3-1 for the District (7-3 males and o-6 females). The number of
schools increased from 675 with 22,346 pupils in 1890-1 to 778 with
23,126 pupils m 1900-r. In 1903-4 there were 766 schools (458
public and 308 private), with 22,853 pupils, of whom 3,379 were
girls.

Besides the general hospital at Mysore city, there are 23 dispensaiies
in the District, at which 250,000 patients were treated in 1904, of
whom 2,300 were m-patients, the number of beds available being 69
for men and 60 for women. The total expenditure was Rs. 82,000.

The number of persons vaccinated in 1904 was 13,896, 01 ii per
1,000 of the population.

Mysore Taluk. — Cential taluk of Mysore District, Mysore State,
lying between 12° 7' and 12° 27' N and 76° 28' and 76° 50' K, with
an area of 306 square miles. The population in 1901 was 133,840,
compared with 134,684 in 1891, the decrease being chiefly due to
plague. The taluk contains Mysore City (population, 68,rii), the
head-quarters ; and 163 villages. The land revenue demand in 1903-4

26 o

MYSORE TALUK

was Rs. 1,40,000. The north-west angle is bounded by the Cauvery
and Lakshmantirtha, but the niain drainage flows south to the Kabbani.
The country is undulating, and the principal height is the Chamundi
hill (3,489 feet) Channels from the Cauvery and Lakshmantirtha
irrigate some villages in the east and north-west There aie many
tanks. The ‘ wet ’ lands have generally very good soil. The ‘ dry ’
lands vary, but are mostly shallow and ston>. Coco-nut, areca-nut,
betel-vines, plantains, and vegetables are largely giown round the city
Mysore City. — The dynastic capital of the Mysore State, and
residence of the MahMja , also head-quarters of the District and taluk
of the same name. It is situated in 12° 18' N and 76° 40' E , at the
north-west base of the Chamundi hill, on the Mysoie State Railway.
The population fell from 74,048 in 1891 to 68,111 in 1901, the
decrease being due to plague The city covers an area of 7| square
miles, and is divided into seven ^mchallas • namely, the Fort, Lashkar,
Devaraj, Krishnaraj, Mandi, Chamaraj, and Nazarabad. The original
city was built in a valley formed by two ridges running north and south.
In recent years it has been completely transformed by extensions to
the north and west, and by the erection of many fine public buildings ;
but the old paits were very ciowded and msamtaiy. A special Board
of Tiustees for improvements was foimed m 1903, and Mysore
promises to become a very handsome city in course of time. It is
administeied by a municipality, which in 1903-4 had an income of
2*2 lakhs, of which 1*2 lakhs was denved from taxes and Rs. 65,000
from octroi. The expenditure was 2*2 lakhs, including Rs 39,000 on
public works, Rs. 31,000 on conservancy, and Rs. 10,000 on education
and charitable grants. Even in the past important sanitary measures
have been carried out In 1886 a complete system of drainage was
provided for the fort, and the precincts of the palace were opened out
and improved One of the most beneficial undertakings was the filling
in of the portentous great drain known as Piirnaiya’s Nullah, origin-
ally excavated in the time of that minister with the object of bringing
the water of the sacred Cauvery into Mysore. It did not fulfil this
purpose, and simply remained a very deep and large noisome sewer.
Its place has now been taken by a fine wide road, called (after the
Gaikwar of Baroda) the Sayaji Rao Road, flanked on either side by
ranges of two-storeyed shops of picturesque design, called the Lans-
downe Bazars At the same time a pure watei -supply was provided
by the formation of the Kukarhalli reseivoir towards the high ground
on the west, from which water was laid on to all paits of the city in
iron mams This has since been supplemented by a high-level
reservoir, the water in ^\hlch is drawn from the Cauvery river near
Anandur, and forced up with the aid of turbines erected there. The
new quarter, called (after the late Maharaja) Chamaiajapma, more than

NAB AD WIP

261

doubled the aiea of the city. Conspicuous on the high ground to the
west are the public offices, surmounted by a dome, standing in the
wooded grounds of Gordon Park Othei prominent buildings m
the vicinity are the Victoria Jubilee Institute, the Maharajahs College,
and the Law Courts In 1897 the old palace in the fort was paitially
destioyed by fire , and this has given occasion for the erection of a new
palace on the same spot of more modem design, constructed of durable
and less combustible mateiials. The opportunity has been taken to
intioduce some of the handsome porphyiies and other ornamental
stones found in Mysore, and stone-carvings on the lines of the famous
ancient sculptuied temples of the State are being used. Altogethei,
the new palace now approaching completion bids fair to be notable for
its architectuie and decoiative featuies. The foit, which is the original
nucleus of the city, is quadrangular, three of the sides being about
450 yards in length, and the lemaimng 01 south side somewhat
longer The palace in the interioi was ciowded round with houses,
principally occupied by retainers. But open spaces have now been
formed, and furthei impiovements Avill follow the completion of the
new building

Mysore itself (propeily Mahisui, ‘ buffalo town ’) is no doubt a place
of great antiquity, as it gave its name to the country as Mahisa-
mandala m the time of Asoka in the thud century b.c , and appeals as
Mahishmati in the !Mahabharata. Maisuinad is mentioned in inscrip-
tions of the eleventh and twelfth centuries The oiiginal foit is said
to have been built 111 1524 But the modem city, even befoie the
extensive rebuilding of lecent yeais, could not boast of any gieat age
Though Mysore was the ancestral capital of the State, it was super-
seded by Seringapatam, which was the seat of the court from 1610 till
the downfall of Tipu Sultan in 1799. The lattei ruler had demolished
the fort, and conveyed the stones to a neighbouring site called
Nazarabad, wheie he intended to erect a new fort. On the restoration
of the Hindu Raj in 1799, the stones were taken back and the fort
lebuilt At the same time the recently destroyed palace was erected,
and the coiiit removed to Mysore. Thus few standing remains can
claim to be older than about a hundred years Inteiesting buildings
are the house occupied by Colonel Wellesley (the futuie Duke of
Wellington), and the Residency (now called Government House),
erected in 1805 of Sir John Malcolm by Majoi De Havilland

This has lately been much altered and extended

Nabadwip (or Nadia). — Ancient capital of Nadia District, Bengal,
situated in 23® 24' N. and 88° 23' E , m the head-quarters subdivision,
on the w^est bank of the Bhagirathi. Population (1901), 10,880,
including 10,416 Hindus, 457 Muhammadans, and 7 Christians. This
great preponderance of Hindus in a District wheie 59 per cent, of the

262

NABADWIP

population aie Musalmans is significant. Nabadwip is reputed to have
been founded in the twelfth century by Lakshman Sen, son of Ballal
Sen, king of Bengal. It was captured by Muhammad-i-Bakhtyar Khiljl
in 1203 It has long been famous for its sanctity and learning, and its
pandits are still referred to on questions of Hindu religion and pre-
cedent. Here towards the end of the fifteenth century was born the
great Vaishnava reformer, Chaitanya, in whose honour a festival,
attended by some 8,000 or 10,000 pilgrims, is held annually in
January-February. The/amous tols or Sanskrit schools are referred
to in the article on Nadia District. The town was constituted a
municipality undei the name of Nadia in 1869. The income during
the decade ending 1 901-2 averaged Rs. 7,000, and the expenditure
Rs. 6,000. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 9,100, mainly from a
tax on persons (or property tax) j and the expenditure was Rs. 8,400.
The lodging-houses in the town are regulated under Bengal Act IV of
1871, Brass utensils are manufactured.

Nabha State. — One of the Phulkian States, Punjab. Its total area
IS 966 ^ square miles , and it consists of two distinct parts, of which the
larger lies between 30^^ 8' and 30® 42' N. and 74° 50' and 76° 24' E.,
while the second, which forms the mzd?nat of Bawal, lies in the
extreme south-east of the Punjab and is distinct m all respects from
the rest of the State. The mam portion comprises twelve separate
pieces of territory, scattered among the other two Phulkian States of
Patiala and Jind, and contiguous with the British Districts of Feioze-
pore and Ludhiana and the State of Maler Kotla on the north, and

the District of Faridkot on the west. This portion is
Phvsicsji ^

aspects duided into two administrative districts or nizdmais^

which correspond with its natural divisions, the
Amloh nhdmat lying in the fertile tract called the Paw^adh, and
the Phiil nizdmat in the vast and tract called the Jangal or waste.
Bawal IS geographically a pait of the Rajputana desert. The State
contains no important streams, and the level plain over which its
territories are scattered is broken, within the limits of the State, only
by the shifting sandhills of Phul and the low rocky eminences, outlieis
of the Aravalli system, which stud the south of Bawal.

The flora of Phul and Amloh is that of the Central Punjab,
approaching in the south-west that of the desert. In Bawal it is the
same as m the neighbouiing States of Rajputana. The fauna is the
same as in the Patiala plains and in Jind. Statistics are not avail-
able, but the rainfall is heaviest in Amloh and lightest in ‘Bawal. The
climate of Bawal and Phul is diy, hot, and healthy. Amloh, with its

^ These figuies do not agiee with the area given in Table III of the article on the
PUN/AB and in the population table on p. 265 of this article, which is the area returned
m 1901, the year of the latest Census. The} aie taken from more letent leturns

NAB HA STATE 263

soil of rich loam and high spring-le\elj is the least salubiious part of
the State.

The earliei histoiy of Nabha is that of the Phulkian States, till it
became a separate State in 1763 Aftei the capture of the town of
Sirhind by the confedeiate Sikhs in that year, the Histor
greater pait of the old imperial province of the same
name was divided among the Phulkian houses ; and the country lound
Amloh fell to Hamir Singh, then chief of Nabha, who thus became its
Raja. In 1774, however, Gajpat Singh, Raja of Jind, wrested Sangrur
from his hands, and also took Amloh and Bhadson. The two last
places were restored to the Raja of Nabha on the intervention of
Patiala, but Sangrui has ever since remained a part of the JInd State.
In 1776 the Phulkian Rajas combined to lesist the attack of the
Muhammadan governor of Hansi, who had been sent by the Delhi
government to attack Jind^ and after his defeat Ron fell to Hamir
Singh as his share of the conquests. In 1783 Hamii Singh was suc-
ceeded by his minor son Jaswant Singh, the RM Desu, one of his
widows, acting as regent till 1790. She recovered most of the territory
which had been seized by Jind ; and after the death of Gajpat Singh m
1789 the feud between the two powers was forgotten, while in 1798
a common danger compelled them to unite with the other Sikh chiefs
and piepaie to resist the invasion of Zaman Shah Durrani. While so
engaged at Lahore, intelligence reached the Phulkian Rajas that the
adventurer Geoige Thomas was besieging Jind, and the} hurried back
to Its relief. In the fighting that ensued the Sikhs weie utterly de-
feated, and accused the Nabha chief of lukenarmness in the common
cause ; and it is ceitain that he took no pait in the struggle. In 1801,
howevei, Nabha was included m the treaty with General Peiron, by
which, in leturn foi the expulsion of Thomas fiom then territories, the
Cis-Sutlej chiefs agreed to submit to the Maiathas. In 1804 Jaswant
Singh enteied into fiiendly relations with Lord Lake, and when
Holkar halted at Nabha in 1805, on his way to Lahore, the Raja
held to his engagement with the British and lefused him assistance.
War, howevei, soon aftei broke out between the Rani of Patiala on the
one hand and the Rajas of Nabha and Jind on the other. Jaswant
Singh was defeated and joined the Raja of Jind in invoking the aid
of Ranjit Singh, who in 1806 crossed the Sutlej and halted at Nabha.
Here he did little to leconcile the contending poweis, but proceeded
to dismember the Muhammadan State of IMalei Kotla, assigning to
Jaswant Singh portions of the Kot Basia, Talwandi, and Jagraon
dependencies of that State, with pait of Ghumgrana. In 1807-8
Ranjit Singh again made expeditions into the Cis-Sutlej States, and
in 1808 Jaswant Singh leceived from him the principality of Khanna.

But in spite of the giants thus made, the policy of Ranjit Singh

264

NAB HA STATE

excited the deep dibtiust of the chiefs, who in 1809 thiew themselves
upon the protection of the British Government, and Ranjit Singh
desisted from all further attempts to extend his dominions south of
the Sutlej. Jaswant Singh's ability had raised the State at this period
to a high pitch of prosperity. It was well cultivated and the total
revenue amounted to 1*5 lakhs. He was, however, involved m con-
stant disputes with Patiala concerning the boundaries of the two States,
and his last years were embittered by the rebellions of his son, who
predeceased him. On his death in 1840 he was succeeded by his
only surviving son, Deoindar Singh, a timid and vacillating man, who
during the first Sikh War in 1845 sympathized with the Sikh invaders,
his conduct in regard to carriage and supplies required from him in
accordance with treaty being dilatory and suspicious in the extreme.
After the battles of Mudki and Ferozeshah, however, supplies were
sent in abundance, and when the final victory of Sobraon was gamed
the whole resources of the State were placed at the disposal of the
British Government. An official investigation was made into the
conduct of the chief, with the result that he was deposed, but leceived
a pension of Rs 50,000 a yeai Neaily a fourth of the territory was
also confiscated, a pait of it being bestowed upon the Patiala and
Faridkot States in rew'ard for their loyalty His eldest son, BharpQr
Singh, was placed in pow'er in 1847. At the time of the Mutiny in
1857 thib chief showed distinguished loyalty, and was rewarded by
a grant of the territory which forms the present Bawal nizamat^ then
worth Rs 1,06,000 per annum, on the usual condition of political and
military service at any time of general danger. In addition, the sanad
of i860 conferied on the Nabha Raja privileges similar to those con-
feried at the same time on the chiefs of Patiala and Jind. Bharpur
Singh died in 1863, and was succeeded by his brother, Bhagwan Singh,
w'ho died without issue m 1871. By the sanad granted in i860, it was
provided that, in a case of failure of male hens to any one of the three
Phulkian houses, a successor should be chosen from among the de-
scendants of Phul by the two chiefs and the representative of the
British Government, and Hira Smgh, the present Raja, w'as accoid-
ingly selected. He was born about 1843. entitled to

a salute of 15 guns, including 4 peisonal to the present chief.

The State contains 4 towns and 488 villages. Its population at
the last three enumerations was: (1881) 261,824, (1891) 282,756, and
, . (1901) 297,949. It IS divided into three nizdmats\

Amloh and Bawal, with their head-quarters at the
town from which each is named , and Phul, with its head- quarters at
Dhanaula. Nabha is the capital of the State.

The following table shows the chief statistics of population in
1901 . —

AGRICULTURE

265

Nizamat

Area in square
miles

Number of

Population

Population per
sqiiaie mile

Pei centage of
vai lation m
population be
tween 1891
and igoi

Number of
persons able to
read and
w rite

Towns

Villages

Amloh

291

22S

115,078

395 2

+ i 5

6,358

Phul

394

111,441

2S2 9

+ 107

5,476

Bawal .

2Sl

164

7 '. 4.30

254 2

+ ^ 7

1.576

State total

92S

488

297,949

321

+ 54

12,410

Note — The figures for the areas of mzamats are taken fiom revenue leturns The
total Stale area is that given in the Census Report

More than 54 pei cent of the population aie Hindus, only 26 per
cent being Sikhs, though Nabha lanks as one of the principal Sikh
States of the Punjab. The Sikhs are mainly Jats by tribe, and are
found mostly in the Phul a tract which came under the

influence of the great Sikh Gurus. Amloh contains a number of
Sikhs of the Sultani sect, but the Jats of Bawal are for the most part
orthodox Hindus, that tract lying closer to the great centres of Hin-
duism. The speech of the gieat mass of the people is Punjabi, which
is returned by thiee-fourths of them, but Hindustani is spoken in the
Bawal nizainat and by the educated classes generally

The Jats 01 Jats of all religions exceed 31 per cent, of the popu-
lation, the Sidhu tribe, to which the ruling family belongs, being
especially impoitant. The Rajputs and Ahlis also form considerable
elements, but the latter aic almost entirely confined to the Bawal
nizdmat About 58 per cent ot the total population are supported
by agriculture. In 1901 only one native Chiistian was enumerated in
the State, which contains no mission.

The Bawal 7 iizdmat differs as much fiom the icst of the State in
agricultural conditions as it does m climate and other characteristics,
and Amloh and Phul also diffei fiom one another,
but less widely. Amloh, owing to its damp climate,
is naturally very feitile and well wooded. The soil is a rich loam,
generally fiee from sand, and the spring-level is near the surface.
The introduction of canal-11 rigation has intensified the natural ten-
dency of this tract to become waterlogged in seasons of heavy rainfall.
Phul is, with the exception of one small tract, in somew^hat marked
contrast. The soil is sandy and the spring-level far below the surface.
Consequently water was scarce until the introduction of canal-irngation
rendered a great extension of cultivation possible. Tliough sandy, the
soil is fertile, and its power of absorbing moisture prevents water-
logging. Naturally less well wooded than Amloh, the Phul nizdmat
was formerly covered with scrub, which is now being cleared as cultiva-
tion extends , and indeed the whole tract is undergoing an agricultural

266

NAB HA STATE

revolution as the canals are developed. The Bawal mzdmaf, with
its dry hot climate, is singularly destitute of streams, tanks, and trees,
and depends for its cultivation on a scanty and precarious rainfall.

The main agricultural statistics for 1903-4 are given below, in
square miles : —

N ISO, mat

Total

Cultivated.

Irrigated

Cultivable

\\aste

Amloh .

291

186

Phul .

394

360

Bawal .

281

247

Total

966

793

184

107

Gram (190 squaie miles), wheat (97), pulses (94), Mjra (74), and
barley (62) were the principal food-crops in 1903-4. The area under
sugar-cane and cotton was 5 and 12 square miles respectively. The
State anticipated the Government of the Punjab in imposing restric-
tions on the alienation of agricultural land to non-agricult ural classes.

Cattle are not raised in laige numbers, though there is some cattle-
breeding in the Jangal. The fairs at Phul and Jaito are impoitant
centies foi the sale of cattle raised in the Southern Punjab. The
latter is held in Maich and is attended by about 25,000 people, and
the former by 5,000. Fans are also held at Amloh and Nabha ; and
at Mahasar in the Bawal nizdmai a large fair takes place twice a yeai,
at which animals woith Rs. 1,50,000 change hands Few horses aie
now raised in the State, though the Jangal used to be famous for
a poweiful breed. Goats aie more prized than sheep, as they supply
milk \ they are mostly reared in Bawal. Camels are kept by the people
for ploughing and the transport of grain in both Phul and Bawal, owing
to the chaiacter of the country

The State owns 3- 168 per cent, of the Sirhind Canal; and the
Abohar and Bhatmda branches irrigate a large pait of the Phul
nizdmat^ while the Kotla branch supplies the lest of that nizdmai^
and another irrigates a pait of Amloh. The aiea irrigated varies
inversely with the rainfall, the highest figures ever reached being
17,052 acres in Phul and 7,110 acres m Amloh. In Amloh the
spring-level is high and well-irngation is common, 26 per cent, of
the cultivated area being irrigated in this way. In Phul, on the
other hand, the spnng-level is very low, and only 2 pei cent, of the
cultivated aiea is irrigated from wells. In Bawal, \vhere theie aie no
canals, 7 per cent of the cultivated area is irrigated from w^ells. In
1903 the total number of \vells in the State vs^as 4,723, of which
3,385 were in Amloh. About 73 per cent, of the w^ells in Amloh aie
worked by means of the Persian wheel, which is unknown in the other
nizdmais.

ADMINISTRA TION

267

Stone is quaiiied in the Kanti and Behali hills in the Bawal tiizdmai.
Kankar is found in several places throughout the State, and saltpetre
in a few scattered villages in the 7 iizdmats of Phul and Amloh

The chief industries are the manufacture of silver and gold orna-
ments, and brass utensils for local needs. Earthen vessels and clay
toys are exported to the neighbouring tracts Lace or
gota IS manufactured at Nabha town and exported conSi^iSfons.
Amloh has some reputation for its fabiics known as
gabrun and susJ, and of late the manufactuie of non goods has been
Gained on with success. Dd^is^ or cotton carpets, aie woven at Amloh
and Nabha The latter town possesses a cotton-ginning factory and a
steam cotton-press, and Jaito a steam oil-mill, which employ 115, 40,
and 22 persons respectively.

The State expoits grain m large quantities. To facilitate this export
markets have been established at a number of places, that at Jaito
being the largest Cotton is also exported, chiefly to Ambala.

Railway communications aie good. The State is traversed by the
main line and by the Rajpuia-Bhatinda, Ludhiana-Dhuri-Jakhal, and
Ferozepore-Bhatinda branches of the North-Western Railway, while
the Rajputana-Malwa Railway crosses the Bawal mzdniat. The State
contains 88 miles of metalled and 35 miles of unmetalled roads. Of
the former, the piincipal connects Nabha town with Patiala (18 miles),
with Kotla (18 miles), and with Khanna (24 miles)

The postal ariangenients of the State aie governed by the convention
of 1885, which established a mutual exchange of all postal articles
between the British Post Office and the State post. The ordinary
British stamps, surcharged ‘ Nabha State ' and ‘ Nabha State service,’
are supplied to the State at cost price The Postal department is con-
trolled by a post master -gen eial

The inhabitants of the State must have suffered from the famines
which affected the adjoining tracts of Patiala and Jlnd, but the lecoids
afford no information except in regaid to the scarcity
of 1899-1900. Even in regard to that, few statistics
are available The distress, except in parts of Bawal, was not very
severe, and it was largely to meet the needs of famine-stricken refugees
from Bikaner and Hissar that measures of relief were undertaken.
The maximum number of persons employed on \voiks w^as about 3,000,
and of persons in receipt of charitable relief about 2,000.

There is one Political Agent for the Phulkian States and Bahawal-
pur, with head-quarters at Patiala. The Raja himself controls the
administration He is assisted by a council of three
members, the Ijlds-i-dlia^ which also acts as a court
of appeal from the orders of the heads of departments as well as from
the courts of justice. The principal departmental officers are the
VOL. XVIII. s

Famine.

Administration.

268

NAB HA STATE

Mir Munshi, or foreign minister, who, in addition to the duties indi-
cated by his title, controls the postal, canal, and education departments ,
the Bakhshi, or commander-in-chief, who is responsible for the admin-
istration of the army and police departments, the Hakim-i-adalat-i-
sadr, or head of the judicial depaitment, who also possesses important
powers as a court of appeal in civil and criminal cases j and the
Diwan-i-mal sadr, whose special charge is revenue and finance, and
who controls the nazims in their capacity as revenue officers Each
of the three mzamats is subdivided into ihdnas or police circles,
which correspond generally to the old farga/ins. The mzd 7 ?mt 5 are
also taJisils^ each being administered by a ndzim^ under whom is
a tahsilddr.

The principal court of original criminal jurisdiction in each mzCimat
is that of the ndzwi^ who can award sentences of imprisonment up to
three years. Subordinate to the 7 idzhn are the naib- 7 idzims and the
iaksliddrs, whose jurisdiction is limited to cases of trespass. Appeals
from the orders of the 7 idzwis lie to the Addlat sadr^ which in its
original jurisdiction can inflict sentences of imprisonment up to five
years, and from the Addlat sadr to the Ijlds-i-dlta of thiee judges.
The highest court is the Ijlds-i-Khds^ in which the Raja presides, and
which alone can inflict the severest penalties of the law. No regular
appeal lies to this couit, but the Raja exercises full powers of revision
over the proceedings of the low^er courts. Civil suits of a value not
exceeding Rs i,ooo are disposed of by a Munsif in each 7 iizd 77 iat^ from
whose decisions an appeal lies to the 7 idzi 7 }i The ndziiti himself
disposes of all suits of a value exceeding Rs. i,ooo. The Addlat sadr
hears appeals from his orders, and the Ijlds-i-dlia from those of the
Addlat sadr. In revenue cases, appeals from the orders of the tahsil-
ddf's lie to the 7 idzi 77 i^ and further appeals in revenue executive cases to
the Dlwan, and in other cases to the Addlat sadr A third appeal is
allowed to the Ijlds-i-dlia from decisions of the Addlat sadr, A city
magistrate, with the powders of a Tidzwt^ disposes of civil and criminal
w^ork in the capital. The Indian Penal Code and Procedure Codes
are in force, with certain modifications.

The land revenue alone and the total revenue of the State are shown
below, in thousands of rupees —

1880-1

1900-1

1903-4.

Land revenue .

Total levenue ,

6 50
11,69

7 60
12,36

8,82

Apart from land revenue, the principal items in 1903-4 were cesses
(Rs. 61,000), irrigation (1*3 lakhs), and excise (Rs. 51,000). The
expenditure included public works (3*8 lakhs), army (1.9 lakhs), police

ADMINISTRA TION

269

(Rs. 86,000), and education (Rs. 10,000). The mint, which dates
fiom a peuod pi 101 to the establishment of British rule in the Punjab,
is still used, but only on veiy special occasions, such as the accession
of a Raja. The Nabha rupee is worth 15 annas.

It IS doubtful whether Akbar^s land revenue assessments weie ever
applied to the country which is now compiised in the mam portion
of the State. Bawal, however, was a jfargana of the sarkdr of Rewari,
The ancient system of levying the revenue in kind was in force m
Nabha State up to i860, ivhen a cash assessment was introduced in all
the parganas except that of Lohat Baddi, in which it was not intro-
duced till 1875, assessments were summary m charactei,

but in 1873 the present Raja diiected a regular settlement of the
Amloh nhdviat to be carried out. This work was completed in 1878,
the settlement opeiations being conducted accoiding to the Biitish
Revenue Law of 1848 and the rules thereunder, and the assessment
was fixed for a period of twenty years. In 1888 the settlement of the
Bawal nimmaf was taken in hand and completed in 1892, that of the
Phul nizdmui being commenced in 1891 and leaching its conclusion
in 1901. These two latter settlements were conducted on the lines of
the Punjab Revenue Law of 1887, the land being measured and the
record-of-rights piepared as in a British District. The land levenue
demand under the new settlements amounted in 1905-6 to S-S lakhs.
The revenue lates for unirngated land vary from a minimum of
R 0-8-5 Phul to a maximum of Rs. 2-10 foi the best land in the
same ntzd 7 nat. For irrigated land, they vary from Rs. 2-2 m Bawal
to Rs 6-13-6 in Phul

Rent is paid either m cash or in kind The share of the produce
varies from one-quarter to one-half, and this system is common in
Phul and Amloh. Cash rents are the rule m Bawal, ranging from 12
annas to nearly Rs. 7 per acie on unirngated land, and from Rs. 5 to
Rs. 17-8 on iirigated land.

The lease of the State distillery at Nabha is sold by auction, and the
contractor arranges for the retail sale through his agents, who are not
allowed to charge more than a certain price for each kmd of liquor.
The poppy is not grown in Nabha, but raw opium is imported from
Malwa and the Hill States, and prepared foi the market after impor-
tation. The Phul preparations aie well-known and command a large
sale. Hemp drugs are imported from Hoshiarpur, but their export
IS prohibited. The licences for the retail vend of both are auctioned.
The State receives an allotment of 35 chests of Malwa opium per
annum, each chest containing 1-25 cwt. The State pays a special
duty of Rs. 280 per chest for this opium, instead of the ordinary duty
of Rs. 275 , but it IS credited back to the State by Government, with
a view to secure the cordial co-operation of the State officials in the

270

NABHA STATE

suppression of smuggling The import of opium into British territoiy
from the Bawal 7 iizamat is forbidden.

Nabha is the only town in the State that is administered as a muni-
cipality, but octroi is levied in the markets established at Jaito, Phul,
and Bahadur Singhwala

The Public Woiks department is in charge of the Afsar-i-Tamirat,
subject to the general control of the Diwan. The principal public
buildings are mentioned in the article on Nabha Town.

The army consists of a battalion of Impenal Service infantry, and
a local force of 150 cavalry, 70 infantry, and 40 artillerymen with
10 serviceable guns

The total stiength of the police force is 838 officeis and men, and
the executive head of the force is styled Colonel of Police. The
department is under the control of the BakhshI There are, m
addition, 533 \illage watchmen. The principal jail is at Nabha town.
It IS managed by a daroga under the supervision of the city magis-
trate, and has accommodation for 500 prisoners. The jail industries
include carpeMveaving and papei -making. The jail at Baw^al has
accommodation for 100 prisoners

The State contains thirteen public schools, all managed by a com-
mittee of officials. The system dates from 1880, when the school at
Nabha was raised to the middle standard In 1885 its students first
appeared in the Punjab University examination , in 1888 it w^as raised
to the status of a high school, and in 1893 to that of a college, to be
reduced again five years later to that of a high school owung to lack
of funds. Baw'al has a middle school, and at Chotian an Anglo-
vernacular school IS maintained, to wffiich none but sons of Sikhs are
admitted without the Raja’s permission. The total expendituie on
education in 1903-4 w^as Rs. 10,000 In 1901 the percentage of the
population able to lead and write was 4 2 (7*4 males and o i females),
being higher than m any other State in the Province The total
number of peisons under instruction rose from 396 in 1891 to 635
in 1903-4.

There are 8 dispensaries in the State, in addition to the hospital
at the capital, wffiich contains accommodation for 5 in-patients. In
1903-4 the number of cases treated was 68,673, of whom 1,914 were
in-patients, and 1,791 opeiations were performed. In the same year,
525 persons w’ere successfully vaccinated, or 1*76 per 1,000 of the
population. The vaccination staff consists of a superintendent and
three vaccinators, one for each mza^nat, first appointed in 1882.
Vaccination is nowhere compulsory. The total expenditure on
medical relief in 1903-4 w^as Rs. 9,600.

The first trigonometrical survey w'as made between 1847 and 1849,
and maps were published on the i-inch and 2-inch scales. A 4-inch

NADAUN ESTATE

27t

map of the Cis-Sutlej States was published m 1863, and a revised
edition in 1897. The i-inch maps prepared in 1847-9 revised m
1886-92. Theie are no revenue survey maps.

[H. A. Rose, PhTiJkid 7 i States Gazetteer (in the press) ; L H Giiffin,
The Rajas of the Pimjab (second edition, 1873).]

Nabha Town.— Capital of the Nabha State, Punjab, situated in
30° 23' N. and 76° 10' E., on the Rajpura-Bhatinda branch of the
North-Western Railway Population (1901), 18,468. Founded on
the site of two older villages in 1755 by Haimr Singh, chief and
afterwards Raja of Nabha, it has since been the capital of the State.
It is surrounded by a mud wall containing six gates. In the heart
of the town is a fort, with a masonry rampart and four towers.
One part of the fort is kept private, while the rest is used for state
offices. The marble monuments of foimei Rajas are situated in the
Sham Bagh inside the town. The palaces of the Raja and the heir
apparent are in the Pukhta Gaiden outside the town, while Elgin
House, a spacious building, reserved for the accommodation of dis-
tinguished visitors, stands in the Mubarak Garden close by The
cantonment and the jail, which has accommodation for 500 prisoners,
lie outside the towm The principal exports are grain, oilseeds, and
raw' and ginned cotton ; the principal imports are sugar and cloth.
The tow'n is administered as a municipality , the income m 1903-4
was Rs. 19,000, chiefly derived from octroi, and the expenditure w'as
Rs. 22,200. It contains a high school and a hospital, called the
I^nsdowne Hospital.

Nadanghat. — Village in the KMna subdivision of Burdwan District,
Bengal, situated m 23° 22' N and 88° 15' E., on the Khar! river.
Population (1901), 916. Nadanghat is the principal rice mail in the
interior of the District, whence large quantities of gram are carried by
country boats to the Bhagiiathi

Nadaun Estate. — Estate in the Hamirpur taJuil of Kangra Dis-
trict, Punjab, with an aiea of 87 square miles. Its holder is a giandson
of Raja Sansar Chand, and is thus, like the holdei of Lambagr von,
a representative of the ancient Katoch dynasty of Kangra. Jodhbir
Chand, Sansar Chand’s illegitimate son, gave his two sisters in marriage
to Ranjit Singh, and was created a Raja, Nadaun, the northern portion
of the Katoch dominions, being conferred upon him Raja Jodhbir
Chand remained loyal during the Katoch insurrection of 1848, and
as a reward his jdglr (then woith Rs. 26,270 a year) was confirmed
to him by the Biitish Government on annexation. His son Pirthi
Singh earned the Order of Ment for his services during the Mutiny.
In 1868 the Raja was made a K.C S.I and received a salute of
7 guns. The estate in 1890 devolved by primogenituie on Narindar
Chand, the present Raja. His jdglr consists of 14 villages and

2 7 2 JVA£>A UN ESTA TE

bungs in about Rs. 35,000 a yeai. He is an honoraiy magistiate
and Munsif.

Nadaun Town. — Petty to^\n in the Hamiipui taJml of Kangia
District, Punjab, situated in 31° 46' N. and 79° 19'' E , on the left bank
of the Beas, 20 miles south-east of Kangra town, and head-quaiters
of the jagir of the Raja of Nadaun, son of the late Raja Sir Jodhbir
Chand Population (1901), 1,426 It was once a favouiite residence
of Raja Sansar Chand, who built himself a palace at Amtar, on the
rivei bank, one mile from the town, wheie he held his court duiing
the summer.

Nadia District, — District in the Piesidency Division, Bengal,
lying between 22® 53' and 24° ir'' N. and 88° 9' and 89° 22^ E , with
an area of 2,793 square miles It is bounded on the west by the
Bhagirathi, or Hooghly iiver , on the south by the Tw’entj^-four
Parganas, on the north the Jalangi livei separates it from Murshid-
ab§.d, and the Padma or main channel of the Ganges from Rajshahi
and Pabna ; FaiTdpur and Jessoie Districts foim the eastern jDoundaiy.

Nadia is situated at the head of the Gangetic delta, and its alluvial
surface, though still liable in parts to inundation, has been raised
by ancient deposits of silt above the normal flood-
aspects. level, its soil is agriculturally classed as high land,
and bears cold-season crops as well as iice. The
rivers have now ceased their woik of land-making and aic beginning
to silt up The general aspect is that of a vast level alluvial plain,
dotted with villages and clusters of trees, and intersected by numeious
rivers, backwaters, minoi streams, and swamps. In the w^est of the
District IS the Kalantar, a lowHying tract of black clay soil which
.sti etches fiom the adjoining pait of Muishidabad through the Kallganj
and Tehata thanas

Along the northern boundaiy flows the wide sticam of the Padma.
This IS now the mam channel of the Ganges, which has taken this
course in comparatively iccent times , it originally flow^ed dowm the
Bhagliathi, still the sacied iivei in the estimation of Hindus, and
It afterwards probably followed in luin the couise of the Jalangi
and the Matabhanga before it eventually took its piesent direction,
flowing almost due east to meet the Biahmaputia near Goalundo.
The iiveis which inteisect the District are thus either old beds of the
Ganges or eailiei streams, like the Bhairab, which earned the drainage
of the Darjeeling Himalayas diiect to the sea befoie the Padma broke
eastwards and cut them m halves The whole District is a netwoik
of moribund rivers and sti earns; but the Bhagirathi, the Jalangi,
and the Matabhanga aie the three which aie called distinctively the
‘Nadia RiVERb.’ The Jalangi fldws past the head-quarters station
of Krishnagar, and falls into the Bhagirathi opposite the old town

NADIA DISTRICT

273

of Nadia. Its chief distributary is the Bhaiiab. The Matabhanga,
after thiowing off the Panga^i, Kumar, and Kabadak, bifuicates near
Knshnaganj into the Churni and Ichamatl, and thereafter loses its
own name. Maishes abound.

The surface consists of sandy clay and sand along the course of
the rivers, and fine silt consolidating into clay in the flatter parts
of the plain.

The swamps afford a foothold foi numerous marsh species, while
the ponds and ditches are filled with submerged and floating water*
plants The edges of sluggish creeks are lined with large sedges
and bulrushes, and the banks of rivers have a hedge-like shrub jungle.
Deserted or uncultivated homestead lands are densely covered with
shrubberies of semi-spontaneous species, mteispersed with clumps
of planted bamboos and groves of Areca, Moringa^ Mangifera^ and
Ano 7 ia ; and the slopes of embankments are often well wooded.

Wild hog aie plentiful, and snipe abound in the swamps. There
are still a few leopards, and wild duck are found in the jhtls near
the Padma. Snakes are common and account for some 400 deaths
annually ; about 90 more are caused by wild animals.

The mean temperature for the year is 79°, langing between 69®
and 88°. The mean minimum varies from 52° in January to 79°
in June, and the mean maximum from 77° in December to 97° in
May. The average humidity is 79 per cent of satuiation, varying
from 71 per cent in March to 87 pei cent, in August. The annual
rainfall aveiages 57 inches, of which 6*5 inches fall in May, 9*7 in June,
10 5 in July, 11*3 m August, 8-i in Septembei, and 4-1 in October.

bloods occur fiequently and cause much damage , the aiea especially
liable to injuiy is a low-lying strip of land, about 10 miles wide,
lunning in a south-easterly direction across the centre of the Dis-
trict. It IS said that this is swept by the floods of the Bhagirathi
whenever the great Lahtakuri embankment in Murshidabad Distiict
gives way, but it is on lecord that the bieaking of this embank-
ment has not always been followed by a rise of the flood-level in
Nadia.

The town of Nadia or Nabadwip (meaning ‘new island’), from which
the District takes its name, has a very ancient histoiy, and about
the time of William the Conqueior the capital of the
Sen kings of Bengal was tiansferred thithei fiom ®

Gaur. In 1203 Lakshman Sen, the last of the dynasty, was over-
thrown by the Muhammadan freebooter Muhammad-i-Bakhtyar KhiljT,
who took the capital by surprise and subsequently conquered the
greater part of Bengal proper. No reliable information is on record
about the District until 1582, when the gieater part of it was included
at Todar Mai’s settlement in sarkdr Satgaon, so called from the old

2 74 NADIA DISTRICT

tiade emporium of that name near the modern town of Hooghly.
At that time it was thinly inhabited, but its pandits weie conspicuous
for their learning. The present Maharaja of Nadia is a Brahman
and has no connevion with Lakshman Sen’s dynasty , his family,
however, claims to be of great antiquity, tracing its descent in
a direct line from Bhattanarayan, the chief of the five Brahmans
who weie imported from Kanauj, in the ninth century, by Adisur,
king of Bengal At the end of the si\tcenth centuiy a Raja of this
family assisted the Mughal geneial, Man Singh, in his expedition
against Piatapaditj^a, the lebellious Raja of Jessore, and subsequently
obtained a giant of fouiteen parganas fiom Jahangir as a rewaid
for his services. The family appears to have i cached the zenith
of its power and influence in the middle of the eighteenth centuiy,
when Maharaja Krishna Chandra took the side of the English m the
Plassey campaign, and leceived from Clive the title of Rajendra
Bahadur and a present of 12 guns used at Plassey, some of which
are still to be seen in the Maharaja’s palace

Nadia Distiict was the principal scene of the indigo iiots of i860,
which occasioned so much excitement thioughout Bengal propei.
The native landowners had ahvays been jealous of the influence
of the European planters, but the leal cause of the outbieak was
the fact that the cultivatois realized that at the prices then ruling
it would pay them better to grow oilseeds and cereals than indigo.
Their discontent was fanned by mteiested agitators, and at last they
lefused to grow indigo The endeavours made by the planters to
compel them to do so led to serious noting, 'which \vas not suppressed
until the troops weie called out. A commission was appointed to
inquire into the relations between the planteis and the cultivators,
and matteis giadually settled down; but a fatal blow had been dealt
to indigo cultivation in the District, fiom which it ne\ei altogethei
recovered Sevcial factories survived the agitation, and some still
continue to work, but the competition of synthetic indigo has 1 educed
the puce of the natural dye to such an extent that the proprietors
are finding it moie profitable to give up indigo and to manage their
estates as oidmary ::a?mnddris

The population of the piesent aiea incieased fiom 1,500,397 in 1872
to 1,662,795 in 1881. Since that date it has been almost stationary,
Population ^^-ving fallen to 1,644,108 in 1891, and iisen again
to 1,667,491 in 1901 From 1857 to 1864 the
Distiict was scourged by the ‘Nadia fever,’ which caused a fearful
mortality, especially in the old jungle-sui rounded and tank-infested
villages of the Ranaghat subdivision. There are no statistics to show^
the actual loss of life, but it is known that in some parts whole villages
were depopulated. There w'as a lecrudescence of the disease in

POPULATION

275

r 881-6, which caused the loss of population lecorded at the Census
of 1891 Nadia is still one of the most unhealthy parts of Bengal,
and in 1902 the deaths ascribed to fevers amounted to no less than
41 per 1,000 of the population. In 1881 a special commission
ascribed the repeated outbreaks of malaiia to the silting up of the
rivers, which had become ‘chains of stagnant pools and hotbeds
of pestilence in the dry season.’ Feveis accounted foi no less than
82 per cent, of the deaths m 1901, as compared with the Provincial .
aveiage of 70 per cent Cholera comes next, and is responsible for
4 per cent, of the moitality.

The principal statistics of the Census of 1901 are shown beloiv. —

Subdu ision

Ranaghat
Kush 11 a
Meherpur
Chuadanga

Dibtiict total

Number of

'o c

1/1 ^

cic

Popiilafic

§ £

Z ai

^ c

iB £

u 5

population
tueen i8(
and iQO]

Numbei
persons ab
read an
wiite

701

740

3<".333

515

3 5

29,784

427

568

217.077

50S

—

16,706

596

I, on

486,368

816

0 7

22,743

633

607

348,124

551

13.875

437

•

485

254.5S9

3*7

10,267

2.793

3 > 4 ”

1,667,491

597

i 4

93:375

The pimcipal towns aie Krishnagar, the head-quaiters, S antipur,
N\i}ai)Wip or Nadia, Kushiia, Ranaghat, and Meherpur. The
Kushtia subdivision is by far the most populous portion of the District.
The low density elseAvhere is due to the silting up of the riveis, which
has obstructed the drainage and caused long-continued unhealthiness.
The soil also has lost much of its fertility, now that it is no longei
eniiched by annual deposits of silt. The material condition of the
Distiict is less satisfactory than that of its neighbouis, and since 1891
It has lost 65,000 peisons by migration, chiefly to the adjoining
Districts and to Calcutta Owung to this cause, it contains 1,015
females to every 1,000 males. The pievalent language is Bengali,
which is spoken wuth remarkable purity by the educated classes.
Muhammadans number 982,987, or 59 per cent, of the population,
and Hindus 676,391, or 40-6 per cent ; the preponderance of the
formei is most maiked in the eastern part of the District, and espe-
cially in the Kushtia subdivision. It is a cuiious circumstance that
whereas Muhammadans foim the majority of the whole population,
they are in a veiy considerable minority in the towns, where they
only foim 26 3 pei cent, of the total. Of the Muhammadans, large
numbeis belong to the puritanic sect of Farazis 01 Wahabis ; and the
fanatic leader, Titu Mian, an account of whose rebellion in 1831 w^ill

276

NADIA DISTRICT

be found in the article on the Twentv-four Parganas, leciuited
many of his folio weis m Nadia.

The Kaibarttas (111,000), the gieat lace caste of Midnapore, are
by far the most numerous caste in the District, and they are fol-
lowed by the GoMas (cowheids), who number 71,000. The Brah-
mans (47,000) are to a gieat extent the descendants of settlers in
the time of the Sen kings. Next in numeiical importance come the
low-caste Bagdis, Muchis, and Chandals. Kayasths number 31,000,
and there are 26,000 Males or boatmen Of every 100 persons in
the Distiict, 56 are engaged in agiiculture, 16 m industry, one in
commeice, 2 in one or other of the professions, and 17 in general
labour. This District was the birthplace, in 1485, of the great re-
ligious leformer Chaitanya, who founded the modern Vaishnava sect
of Bengal. He was opposed to caste distinctions, and inveighed
against animal sacrifices and the use of animal food and stimulants,
and taught that the tiue road to salvation lay in hhakti 01 devotion
to God. A favouiite form of ^^orshlp with this sect is the sanklrtan,
01 ]iymn-singing procession, which has gained greatly in popularity of
late yeais. The town of Santipur, m the Ranaghat subdivision, is
held sacred as the residence of the descendants of Adwaita, one
of the two first disciples of Chaitanya. Most of his followers, while
accepting his religious views, maintain their original caste distinctions,
but a small minority abandoned them and agreed to admit to their
community reciuits from all castes and religions. These persons
are known as Baishnabs or Bairagis. At the present day most of
their new adherents join them because they have been turned out
of their own castes, or on account of love intrigues or other sordid
motives , and they hold a very 'low position in popular estimation.
A large piopoition of the men live by begging, and many of the
women by piostitution.

Among the latter-day olfshoots of Chaitanya’s teaching, one of
the most inteiestmg is the sect of Kaitabhajas, the worshippeis of the
Karta or ‘ headman ’ The founder of the sect was a Sadgop by caste,
named Ram Saram Pal, geneially known as Karta Baba, who was
born about two centuiies ago near Chakdaha in this District, and
died at Ghoshpara This sect accepts recruits from all castes and
leligions, and its votaries assemble periodically at Ghoshpaia to pay
homage to then spiritual head

Christians number 8,091, of whom 7,912 are natives. The Church
of England possesses 5,836 adherents, and the Roman Catholic
Church 2,172. The Church Missionary Society commenced work
in 1831, and has 13 centres presided over by native clergy or cate-
chists, and superintended by 6 or 7 Eutopeans. The Roman Catholic
Mission was established in 1855, and Kiishnagar is no’^v the head*

AGRICULTURE 277

quarters of the diocese of Central Bengal. In 1877 theie was a schism
among the adherents of the Church Missionary Society, and a number
of them went over to the Chuich of Rome The Chuich of England
Zanana Mission works at Krishnagar and at Ratanpur, and a Medical
mission at Ranaghat.

We have already seen that Nadia is not a fertile District In most
paits the soil is sandy, and will not retain the water necessary for
the cultivation of winter iice, which is grovn only Agriculture
in the Kalantai and paits of the Kushtia subdivi-
sion, occupying but one-ninth of the gross ciopped aiea The land
has often to be left fallow to enable it to recover some degree of
fertility. A very large number of the cultivators aic mere tenants-
at-will and have little inducement to improve their lands, and the
lepeated outbreaks of malaria have deprived them of vitality and
energy. The dead level of the surface affords little opportunity for
nrigation, which is rarely attempted The total aiea under cultiva-
tion in 1903-4 was 901 square miles, the land classed as cultivable
waste amounting to 544 square miles. Sepaiate statistics for the
subdivisions are not available.

The staple crop is rice, grown on 775 square miles, or 86 per
cent, of the net ciopped area The autumn crop is the most im-
portant, It occupies about 607 square miles and is usually reaped
in August and September, but theie is a late variety which is har-
vested about two months latei. The winter crop is reaped in December,
and the spring iice in March or April. The winter and spring crops
are transplanted, but the autumn rice is generally sown broadcast.
After rice, the most important crops are giam and other pulses,
linseed, rape and mustard, jute, wheat, indigo, and sugar-cane The
cultivation of indigo is contiacting, and only 6,300 acres were sown
m 1903-4. After the autumn rice is harvested, cold-scason ciops of
pulses, oilseeds, and wheat aie giown on the same fields, and 79 per
cent of the cultivated aiea glows two crops. The rice growm in
the District is insufficient to satisfy the local demand In some
parts, especially in the subdivision of Chuadanga, the cultivation of
chillies {Capsicum frutescens) and turmeric forms an important feature
m the rural industry, upon which the peasant relies to pay his rent.

Cultivation is extending, but no improvement has taken place in
agricultural methods. The manuring practised is insufficient to restore
to the soil w^hat the crops take fiom it, and it is steadily deteriorating
Very little advantage has been taken of the Land Impiovement and
Agriculturists’ Loans Acts.

The local cattle are very inferior, the pasturage is bad, and no
care is taken to improve the breeds by selection or otherwise

Santipur was once famous for its weavers, and in the beginning

278

XADIA DISTRICT

of the nineteenth centuiy the agent of the East India Company
used to purchase muslins to the annual value of £150,000. The
industry, however, has almost died out. Very little
Trade and muslin is now expoited, and even the weaving of
communications, cotton cloth is on the decline. Sugai-refining

by Euiopean methods has proved unsuccessful, but there are several
date-sugar rcfineiies in nature hands at Santipur, Munshiganj, and
Alamdanga. Biass-waie is manufactured, particulaily at Nabadwlp
and Meheipur, and clay figuies are moulded at Krishnagar ; the latter
find a leady sale outside the District and have met with recognition
at exhibitions abroad. There is a factory at Kushtia under European
management for the manufactme of sugai-cane mills

Owing to Its numeious ivaterways, the District is very favourably
situated foi tiade. Moreover, the Eastern Bengal State Railway runs
through It foi a distance of neaily 100 miles. Gram, pulses, jute,
linseed, and chillies are exported to Calcutta, and sugar to Eastern
Bengal Coal is impoited fiom Burdwan and ManbhOm; salt, oil,
and piece-goods from Calcutta, and rice and paddy fiom Burdwan,
Dinajpur, Bogia, and Jessore.

The chief railway trade centies aie Chuadanga, Bagula, Ranaghat,
Damukdia, and Poradaha , and those for river traffic are Nabadwip
on the BhagTiathi, Santipur and Chakdaha on the Hooghly, Karlmpur,
Andulia, Krishnagar, and Swaiupganj on the JalangT, Hanskhali on the
Churni, Boalia and Krishnaganj on the Matabhanga, Nonaganj on
the IchamatT, Alamdanga on the Pangasi, and Kushtia, Kumarkhali,
and Khoksa on the Gaiai. About thirty -eight fans aie held yearly.
Most of them, however, are religious gatherings ; the best attended
are the fans held at Nabadwlp in Febiuary and November, at Santipur
in November, at Kulia in Janiiar)', and at Ghoshpara in March.

The Eastern Bengal State Railway (broad gauge) passes through
the District fiom Kanchrapara on the southern, to Damukdia on the
northern boundary , and a branch runs east from Poradaha, through
Kushtia, to Goalundo m Farldpur District. The central section of
the same laihvay luns from Ranaghat eastw’’ards to Jessore, and a light
raihvay (2 feet 6 inches gauge) from Ranaghat to Krishnagar via
Santipur. A new line has recently been constructed from Ranaghat
to Murshidabad.

The District board maintains 803 miles of loads, in addition to
526 miles of village tracks Of the roads, 107 miles are metalled,
including the roads from Krishnagar to Bagula and Ranaghat, from
Meherpur to Chuadanga, and several others which serve as feeders
to the raihvay. Of the unmetalled roads the most important is the
load fiom Baiasat in the Tw^enty-four Parganas, through Ranaghat
and Kn:shnagar, to Plassey in the north-west comer of the District.

ADMINISTRA TION

279

All the rivers aie navigable during the lamy season by boats of
large burden, but in the dry season they dwindle to shallow streams
and are obstructed by sandbanks and bars. Before the era of rail-
ways the Nadia Rivers afforded the regular means of communica-
tion between the uppei valley of the Ganges and the sea-board, and
elaborate measures are still adopted to keep their channels open.
Steamers ply daily between Calcutta and Kalna via Santipur, and on
alternate days, during the rains, between Kalna and Murshidabad
via Nabadwip. Numerous steam eis pass up and down the Padina, and
a steam ferry crosses that river from Kushtia to Pabna

Nadia suffered severely in the gieat famine of 1770 The worst
famines of recent times were those of 1866 and 1896. On the former
occasion relief from Government and private funds Famine
was necessary from April to Octobei , 601,000 pei-
sons were gratuitously lelieved, and 337,000 w^ere employed on relief
works. The famine of 1896 affected about two-fifths of the District
including the Kalantar, the Meheipur subdivision, and the western
portions of the Kushtia and ChuManga subdivisions. The grant
of relief continued from November, 1896, until September, 1897,
the total expenditure from public funds being lakhs The daily
average number of persons employed on relief works was 8,913. In
July, 1897, the average rose to 25,500 persons, and gratuitous relief
was afforded daily to an average of 33,000 peisons

For administiative purposes Nadia is divided into five subdivisions,
with head-quarters at Krishnagar, Kushiia, Ranaghat, Meherpur,
and Chuadanga. The District Magistrate is assisted , . .
at head-quarters by a staff of five Deputy-Magistiate- ^ ministration.
Collectors, one of whom is solely employed on land acquisition work.
The Meherpur subdivision is in charge of an Assistant Magistrate-
Collector, while the other subdivisional officers are Deputy-Magistrate-
Collectors

For the disposal of civil work, the judicial staff subordinate to the
District and Sessions Judge consists of a Sub-Judge and two Munsifs
at Krishnagar, two ‘ Munsifs at Kushtia, and one each at Meheipur,
Chuadanga, and Ranaghat. The criminal courts aie those of the
District and Sessions Judge, the District Magistrate, four Deputy-
Magistrates at Krishnagar, and the subdivisional officers in the other
subdivisions. No class of crime is now specially prevalent, but at the
beginning of the nineteenth century the Distnct was notorious for
dacoity and noting.

The current land revenue demand for 1903-4 was 9*1 lakhs, due from
2,492 estates. Of these, 2,216 with a revenue of 8 14 lakhs are per-
manently settled, 246 estates paying Rs. 73,000 are temporarily settled,
and 30 estates paying Rs. 22,000 are managed direct by the Collector.

28 o

NADIA DISTRICT

In addition, theie are 299 revenue-fiee estates and 9,169 icnt-fiee lands,
which pay road and public woiks cesses. The gioss lental of the
District has been returned by the proprietors and tenure-holdeis at
34 lakhs, and of this sum the Government revenue demand represents
26*7 per cent. The incidence of the land levenue is R. 0-15-3 pei
acre on the cultivated area.

The ittbandi tenure is not peculiar to Nadia, but is especially common
in this District, \\here about 65 pei cent of the cultivated land is held
undei it. The tenant pays rent only for the land he cultivates each
year ; and he cannot acquire occupancy rights unless he tills the same
land foi twelve years consecutively, wdiich in fact he raiely does Mean-
while the landlord can raise the rent at his pleasure, and if the tenant
refuses to pay, he can be ejected. This tenure deprives the tenant of
any incentive to improve his lands, and at the same time encourages
rack-renting. It appears, however, to be gradually giving way to the
ordinary system. Where the tenants have occupancy rights, the rent of
rice land ranges from Rs. 1-4 to Rs. 4-8 an acre; garden land is rented
at about Rs. 1 1 an acre, and land under special crops, such as chillies
and sugar-cane, at Rs. 7-8 or even more. Lands leased under the
iitbandi system pay higher lents, as much as Rs. 12 to Rs. 23 being
paid per acre, as compared with R. i to Rs. 2-9 for similar lands held
on long leases.

The following table shows the collections of land revenue and of
total revenue (principal heads only), in thousands of rupees : —

1880-1 *

1890-1

1 900-1.

1903-4

Land revenue ,

Total revenue ,

10,98

16,68

9,30

M.93

9,10

16,58

9>04

17,10

* In iSFo-i the District included the subdivision of Bangaon, which was
subsequently tiansferred to Jessoie.

Outside the nine towns which enjoy municipal governmenl, local
affairs are managed by a District board with five subdivisional local
boards. The income of the District board in 1903^4 was Rs. 1,89,000,
of which Rs. 90,000 was derived from rates; and the expendituie
was Rs 1,42,000, including Rs. 74,000 spent on public works and
Rs. 42,000 on education.

The District contains 21 police stations and 13 outposts. In 1903
the force at the disposal of the Distiict Superintendent consisted of
5 mspectois, 48 sub-inspectors, 47 head constables, and 627 constable'^,
maintained at a cost of Rs. 1,38,000 There is one policeman to e\eiy
5*4 square miles and to 3,231 persons, a much laigei propoition than
the Pioiincial average. Besides, theie aie 3,990 \illage chaiikiddis
under 347 dafaddjs

The District jail at Kiishnagai has accommodation for 216 piisoners,

NADIA RIFDDS 281

and subsidiary jails at each of the other subdivisional head-quarteis for
a total of 6 t.

Nadia District, in spite of its proximity to Calcutta, is not especially
remarkable for the diffusion of the rudiments of learning. In 1901
the proportion of literate persons was 5*6 per cent. (10-4 males and o 9
females). The total number of pupils under instruction increased from
about 20,000 in 1883 to 29,364 in 1892-3 and 31,102 in 1 900-1, while
31,573 boys and 3,442 girls were at school in 1903-4, being respectively
25*4 and 2*7 per cent, of the number of school-going age. The number
of educational institutions, public and private, in 1903-4 was 1,026,
including an Arts college, 90 secondary, 887 primary, and 48 special
schools. The expenditure on education was 3*26 lakhs, of which
Rs 62,000 was met from Provincial funds, Rs. 40,000 fiom Distiict
funds, Rs 3,000 from municipal funds, and 137 lakhs fiom fees.
Nadia has always been famous as a home of Sanskrit learning, and its
fols, or indigenous Sanskrit schools, deserve special mention. In these
Smnti (Hindu social and religious law) and Nydya (logic) aie taught,
many of the pupils being attracted from considerable distances by the
fame of these ancient institutions. A valuable report on these tohy by
the late Professor E. B. Cowell (Calcutta, 1867), contains a full account
of the schools, the manner of life of the pupils, and the works studied,
Most of the tols are in the town of NabadwTp, but theie are a few also
m the surrounding villages.

In 1903 the District contained 13 dispensaries, of which 7 had
accommodation for 52 in-patients. The cases of 66,000 out-patients
and 646 in-patients were treated dming the yeai, and 2,700 opera-
tions were performed. The expenditure was Rs 21,000, of which Rs.

5.000 was met by Government contributions, Rs. 3,000 from Local
and Rs. 10,000 from municipal funds, and Rs. 1,935 subscnptions.
In addition, the Zanana Mission maintains a hospital and three dis-
pensaries, and large numbers of patients are treated by the doctors of
the Ranaghat Medical Mission.

Vaccination is compulsory only within municipal areas In 1903-4
the number of persons successfully vaccinated was 50,000, or 33 per

1.000 of the whole population.

[Sir W. AV. Huntei’s Statistical Account of Bengal^ vol. 11 (187s) ;
Fever Commission’s Report (Calcutta, 1881) ]

Nadia Town. — Town in Nadia District, Bengal. See Nabadw^ip,

Nadia Rivers. — A group of offshoots of the Ganges which flow
through the Nadia and Murshidabad Districts of Bengal and unite to
form the Hooghly. The Nadia riveis include the Bhagirathi, the
Jalangi with the Bhairab, and the Matabhanga with the Churn!.
These rivers repiesent old spill channels of the Ganges, and duimg the
rains still carry down to the sea a portion of the flood-water from that

282

NADIA RIVERS

river. Then condition as wateiways and as the channels which feed
the Hooghly from the Ganges is a matter of much importance to the
trade of Calcutta, and during the hot season a weekly register of then
depth is published as a guide to native merchants and boatmen Since
the end of the eighteenth century, however, increasing difficulty has been
expel ienced in keeping them open for navigation throughout the year,
as if left to themselves they silt up during the dry season. These
channels, with an aggregate length of 470 miles, are controlled by
Government , and, though no permanent works have been constructed,
such measures as aie practicable are taken every year to confine the
water, by means of bamboo spurs, to a limited channel, so as to foice
the current to scour the bais and to obtain a depth sufficient for naviga-
tion by boats of small draught. For the services lendered tolls aie
levied at Jangipui, Hanskhali, and Swariipganj on vessels using the
iners In 1902-3 the estimated value of the cargo cairied was 183
lakhs, and in 1903-4 the gioss revenue amounted to Rs. 1,04,000, but
theie was a loss of Rs 16,000 on the year’s working.

Nadiad Taluka. — Central idhika of Kail a District, Bombay, lying
between 22° 35' and 22° 53' N and 72° 46' and 73*^ 5' E., with an aiea
of 224 square miles. It contains two towns, Nadiad (population,
31,435), the head-quarters, and Mahudha (8,544) ; and 91 villages,
including Chaklasi (7,340). The population in 1901 was 148,452,
compared with 171,084 in 1891 The density, 663 persons to the
square mile, is much above the District average. The land revenue
and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to more than 4*3 lakhs. Well-grown
groves of fruit and timber trees, highly tilled fields giit with hedges,
and large substantially built villages, piove the taluka to be one of
the richest parts of Gujaiat.

Nadiad Town. — Head-quarters of the taluka of the same name
in Kaira District, Bombay, situated in 22° 42' N. and 72° 52' E , on
the Bombay, Baioda, and Central India Railway, 29 miles south-east
of Ahmadabad Population (1901), 31,435, Hindus numbering 26,239,
Muhammadans 4,468, and others 728. At the beginning of the seven-
teenth century Nadiad was a large town with cotton and indigo manu-
factures, and in 1775 was descnbed as one of the piettiest cities of
Gujarat, flanked by nine strong gates and a dry moat. In that year
Raghunath Rao Peshwa levied upon it a fine of Rs 60,000 for its
adhesion to the cause of Fateh Singh Gaikwar In 1838 it was said
to be a thriving place, carrying on a considerable trade with Malwa.
Nadiad has been a municipality since 1866, with an average income
of Rs 51,000 during the decade ending 1901. In 1903-4 the income
was Rs. 44,000, derived chiefly from octroi (Rs 19,000) and house and
land tax (Rs. 11,000). The town is the centre of an extensive trade
in tobacco and and contains a cotton mill, a brass foundry, and a

NADUVATTAM

283

sugai factory Theie is also a model experimental faim Nadiad has
a high school with 287 pupils, and 2 middle schools with 142 pupils.
It also contains ro vernacular schools, 8 for boys, including one con-
ducted by the Methodist Episcopal Mission, and 2 for girls, attended by
1,676 and 311 pupils respectively An industiial class is attached to
the Methodist school A Sub-Judge’s couit and a dispensary are
located here. The town also contains a handsome public hall and
libiaiy, known as the Dahi Lakshmi Tabrary

Nadigaon. — Head-quaiteis of a pargana of the same name in Datia
State, Central India, situated in 26° 7^^ N and 79"^ 2' E , on the east
bank of the Pahuj river, a tributary of the Sind Population (1901),
4,443. It IS a town of old foundation, which has declined in importance
of late years owing to isolation from roads and railways. The Nadigaon
parga?ia is held fiom Sindhia, a yearly payment of Rs. 9,500 being
made to that chief thiough the Biitish Govei ament. A school and a
Stale post office are situated in the town The nearest railway station
IS Kunch on the Cawnpore bianch of the Great Indian Peninsula
Railway, 10 miles distant by country track

Nadiya. — District and town in Bengal. See Nadia and Nabadwip,

Nadol. — Village in the Desmi distiict of the State of Jodhpui,
Rajputana, situated in 25° 22^ N. and 73° 27' E, about 8 miles fiom
Jawali station on the Rajputana-Malwa Railway. Population (1901),
3,050. The place is of historical interest as the former seat of a power-
ful branch of the Chauhan Rajputs. Towards the end of the tenth
century, Lakhan or Lachhman Raj, a younger son of Wakpati Raj, the
Chauhan Rao of Sambhar, settled here, and his descendants ruled at
Nadol for about 200 yeais till defeated and driven out by Kutb-ud-dln
Subsequently the place was held by the Ranas of Udaipur till about the
end of the eighteenth century, when, along with the district of Godwar,
It passed into the possession of the chiefs of Jodhpur. To the west of
the village is a dilapidated old fort with square towers of primitive
design, standing on the declivity of a ridge. Inside the*fort is an
extremely handsome Jain temple of Mahavira, built of light-coloured
limestone and richly carved. Of the other numerous and interesting
remains found in the vicinity of the village, the pillared temple called
Khetla-ka-sthan deseives mention as being probably the oldest, but only
eight massive columns now remain. To the east aie the rums of the
ancient Nadol, on an extensile mound thickly covered with fragmentary
pottery and burnt bricks ; heie aie the remains of four temples and an
exquisitely carved stone tora?i or gateway.

[J. Tod, Rajasthan^ vol. 1, pp. 696-8 ; A. Cunningham, Archaeological
Survey of Northern India^ vol xxiii, pp. 91-8.]

Naduvattam, — Village m the Ootacamund tdluh of the Nilgin
District, Madras, situated m ri® 29' N. and 76° 33' E., on the edge of

VOL. XVIII. T

NADUVATTAM

the north-westein corner of the Nilgiri plateau, and commanding
magnificent views across the Gadalur taluk below it and the Malabar
Wynaad beyond. Population (1901), 2,500. Naduvattam stands on
the main road leading fiom Ootacamund to Gudalur, and thence to
the coast of Malabai. It is the centre of important cinchona and tea
estates, and contains the Government cinchona plantations and factory,
at which IS manufactured the quinine sold to the public at all post
offices in 7-grain packets costing three pies each. It has a healthy
climate, and consequently foims the temporary head-quarteis of the
Gudalur tdhik office during the time when fever is worst in Gudalui
The village has a well-furnished travelleis’ bungalow, a resthouse for
natives, and a police station.

Naenwa. — Town in the north of the State of Bundi, Rajputana,
situated in 25°46'N. and 75° 51' E., about 27 miles north-east of Bundi
town. Population (igoi), 4,501 The town is surrounded by a wall
and ditch, both m fair preseivation, and is flanked on the north-east
and south-west by three tanks, fiom which the fosse can be flooded at
pleasure. The largest of these tanks, the Nawal Sagai, is said to have
been built by a Solanki Rajput, Nawal Singh, in 1460 The town
contains a handsome little palace and a \einacular school attended by
40 boys.

Naga Hills. — A Distiict in Eastern Bengal and Assam, lying
between 24° 42' and 26° 48' N. and 93° 7^ and 94° 50 'E., with an
area of 3,070 square miles It is bounded on the north by No\vgong
and Sibsagar , on the west by the North Cachar hills , on the south
by the State of Manipur , and on the east by a line which follows for
the most part the course of the Dikho and Tizu rivers, beyond which
lie hills inhabited by independent tribes. The District consists of
a long narrow strip of hilly country The Barail range enters it from
the west, and the Japvo peak a little to the south of
^spects^ Kohima attains a height of nearly 10,000 feet. Here
it IS met by the meiidional axis of elevation pro-
longed from the Arakan Yoma, and from this point the main range
luns in a north-north-easteily direction The geneial effect is that of a
gigantic L m the reverse position, the junction of the two arms forming
an obtuse instead of a right angle, with minoi ridges branching off on
either side towaids the east and west The hills generally take the
form of serrated ridges, clothed for the most part with dense forest and
scrub and grass jungle, and separated from one another by deep
valleys, through which a stream or river makes its way to the plains
The largest river in the District is the Doiang, but it is only navigable
for a few miles within the hills. The channel is blocked by rocks at
Nabha, or boats could proceed as far as the Mokokchung-Wokha road.
The Dikho is also navigable for a short distance within the hills,

nAga hills

285

though the head-hunting pioclivities of the tubes inhabiting the light
hank might lendei the voyage dangeious; but the same cannot be said
of the Jhanzi and Disai, which flow thiough the plains of Sibsagai into
the Brahmaputra. East of the watershed is the I’lzu with its tributary
the Lanier, which falls into the Chindwin.

The hills have never been piopeily explored, but they are believed
to be composed of Pre-Tertiary rocks, overlaid by strata of the Tertiary
age.

The floia of the Naga Hills resembles that of Sikkim up to the same
altitude. In theii natuial state, the hills are coveied with dense evei-
green foiest , and wheie this forest has been cleaied foi cultivation,
liigh glass reeds and sciub jungle spring up m gieat piofusion

The usual wild animals common to Assam aie found, the list incliul-
ing elephants, bison {Bos gaurus)^ tigeis, leopards, beais, seiow, samba? ^
and barking-deer, and the flying lemui {Nycticeius tardigrad 7 is) A
homed pheasant [Tragopan hlythi) has also been shot in the hills

The climate generally is cool, and at Kohima the thermometer
seldom rises above 80°. The higher hills are healthy, but during
the rains the valleys and the lower ranges are decidedly malaiious.
The rainfall, as in the rest of Assam, is faiily heavy. At Kohima
it is 76 inches in the year, but farther north, at Wokha and Tamlii,
it exceeds 100 inches The earthquake of June 12, 1897, vv^as dis-
tinctly felt, but not much damage was done, and there is no record
of any serious convulsion of nature having evei occurred in the
District.

Of the early history of the Nagas, as of other savage tribes, \ery little
is known. It is mteiestmg, howevei, to note that Tavernier in the
lattei half of the seventeenth century lefeis to people
in Assam, evidently Nagas, who woie pigs’ tusks on ^
their caps, and veiy few clothes, and had great holes for earrings
thiough the lobes of then ears, fashions that survive to the present day.
In the time of the Ahom Rajas they occasionally raided the plains, but
the more powerful princes succeeded in keeping them in check, and
even compelled them to serve in then military expeditions. The first
Europeans to entei the hills were Captains Jenkins and Pemberton,
who marched acioss them in 1832. The stoiy of the early British
lelations with these tubes is one of perpetual conflict. Between 1839
and 1851 ten military expeditions ivere led into the hills, the majority
of which were dispatched to punish raids. After the last of these, in
which the village of Kekrima, which had challenged the British troops
to a hand-to-hand fight, lost 100 men, the Government of India
decided upon a complete withdrawal, and an abstention from all intei-
ference with the hillmen The troops were recalled in March, 1851;
and before the end of that year 22 Naga raids had taken place, in

T 2

286

A^AGA HILLS

which 55 persons were killed, lo wounded, and 113 taken captne
The policy of non-interference was still adhered to, but the results were
far from satisfactory, and between 1853 and 1865, 19 raids were com-
mitted, m which 233 British subjects were killed, wounded, or captured.
The Government accordingly agreed to the formation of a new Dis-
trict in 1866, with head-quarters at Samaguting Captain Butler, who
w^as appointed to this chaige in 1869, did much to consolidate British
power in the hills, and exploration and survey work weie diligently
pushed foiward These advances were, however, resented by the
tribesmen, and in Februaiy, 1875, Lieutenant Holcombe, who was in
charge of one of the survey parties, was killed, with 80 of his followers
Butler himself was three times attacked, and was mortally wounded the
following Christmas Day by the Lhota Nagas of Pangti. Two years
latei his successor, Mi. Carnegy was accidentally shot by a sentry, when
occupying the village of Mozema, which had refused to give up the
persons guilt} of a laid into North Cachar In 1878 it was decided to
transfer the head-quaiteis of the District to Kohima, m the heart of
the Angami country. During the rams of 1879 indications of trouble
began to present themselves , and before starting on his cold-season
tour the Political Officer, Mr. Damant, determined to visit the powerful
villages of Jolsoma, Khonoma, and Mozema. On reaching Khonoma,
he found the gate of the village closed, and as he stood before it, he
was shot dead. The Nagas then poured a volley into his escort, who
turned and fled with a loss of 35 killed and 19 grounded The whole
country-side then rose and proceeded to besiege the stockade at
Kohima, and the garrison were reduced to great straits before they
were relieved by a force from Manipur. A campaign against the
Nagas ensued, which lasted till March, 1880 The most notable event
in this campaign was a daring raid made by a party of Khonoma men,
at the very time when their village was m the occupation of British
troops, upon the Baladhan garden in Cachar, where they killed the
manager and sixteen coolies and burnt down everything in the place.
Within the short space of five years four European officers while en-
gaged in civil duties had come to a violent end , but the Nagas had
begun to learn their lesson, and under the able administration of
Mr. McCabe the District was reduced to a condition of peace and
order. In 1875 a subdivision was opened at Wokha to exercise con-
trol over the Lhota Nagas, who on several occasions had attacked
survey parties sent into the hills. Fourteen years later it was found
possible to withdraw the European officer stationed there, and a sub-
division was opened at Mokokchung in the Ao country. In 1898 the
Mikir and Rengma Hills, with the valley of the Dhansiri, which
formed the most northerly part of the District as originally constituted,
were transferred to Nowgong and Sibsagar. as, on the completion of

POPULATION

287

the Assam-Bengal Railway, it was found moie convenient to administer
this tract of country from the plains than from Kohima, Lastly, in
1904, the tract formerly known as the ‘area of political contror was
formally incorpoiated in the District, and the boundary was pushed
forward to the Tizu river, and even acioss it on the south so as to
include four small AngamI villages on the farther bank.

A census of the hills was first taken in 1891, when the popu-
lation was 96,637 j in 1901 the number had risen to 102,402.
The tract recently incorporated within the District
contains about 30,000 persons There are two sub-
divisions, Kohima and Mokokchung, with head-quarters at places of
the same names; and in 1901 the District contained one town, Kohima
(population, 3,093), and 292 villages The following table gives for
each subdivision particulars of area, population, &c. The large increase
which occurred in Mokokchung between 1891 and 1901 is due to
immigration and to the addition of new territory.

Subdivision

Aiea in square
miles

Number of

1 1

Population

Population per
square mile

Percentage of
\ariation in
population be-
tween 1891
and 1901

Number of
persons able to
read and
wiite

Kohima

Mokokchung

2)337

733

224

68,619

33,783

- 2-3
+ 279

i-i

Distnct total

31O7O

292

102,402

+ 5 9

1,380

Nearly 96 per cent, of the population in 1901 were still faithful to
their various foims of tribal religion. The American Baptist Mission
has branches at Kohima and at Impur in the Mokokchung sub-
division, and practically the whole of the native Christians (579) were
members of this sect. The Nagas do not at present seem to be
attracted to either Hinduism or Christianity. Both of these religions
would, in fact, impose restraints upon their ordinary life, and would
debar them from many pleasures, such as the consumption of beef
and liquor, and a certain latitude in their sexual lelations to which
they have grown accustomed.

The various languages of the Naga group, though classified under
one generic head, differ very widely from one another, and in some
cases the language spoken in one village would not be understood by
people living only a short distance away. AngamI, Chungll, and
Lhota are in most general use. The principal tribes are the Angamis
(27,500), the Aos (26,800), the Lhotas (19,300), and the Sernas, who
form the greater part of the population in the newly added territoiy.

The term Naga is applied by the Assamese to a number of diffeient
tribes, the majoiity having as yet made little progiess on the path of

288

NAGA HILLS

civilization, 'who occupy the hills between the Brahmaputra \ alley and
Burma on the noith and south, the Jaintia Hills on the west, and the
country inhabited by the Khamtis and Singphos on the east. The
Nagas, like the rest of the tubes of Assam, belong to the great Tibeto-
Burnian family, but they aie diffeientiated from most of the othei
sections of the hoide by then warlike and independent spiiit and by
their indiffeience to the sanctity of human life. Among the Nagas,
society is seen lesolved into almost its ultimate unit ; and, though they
are divided into several different tribes, it must not be supposed that
the tribe is the basis upon which then society has been organized. The
most 'svarlike and important tube aie the Angamis, who occupy the
country round Kohima. North of them come the Rengmas, then the
Lhotas, while north and east of the Lhotas are the Aos, whose villages
stretch up to the Dikho rivei On the faither side of this rivei are
a number of tribes with which we are at present but imperfectly
acquainted, but the Sernas live east of the Rengmas and the Aos.

The Nagas, as a whole, aie shoit and stuidy, with features of a
markedly Mongolian type The Lhotas are exceptionally ugly, and
among all the tribes the average of female beauty is extremely low
The people, as a rule, are cheerful and friendly in times of peace, and
aie musically inclined As they march along the loads they keep time
to a chant, which is varied to suit the gradient and the length of step ,
and they sing as they reap then rice, their sickles all coming for^vard in
time to the music. East of the Dikho there are chiefs who enjoy
ceitain pnvileges and exercise authority over then villages, and chiefs
aie also found among the Serna tribe. These chiefs hold their position
by right of inheritance, and, as among the Lushais, the sons, as they
giow' up, mo\e away and found separate villages. The ordinal y Naga
village IS, however, a veiy democratic community, and the leadeis of
the people exercise compaiatively little influence They are noted foi
their skill in w^ar oi in diplomacy, oi foi their wealth , but their ordeis
aic obeyed only so far as they arc m accord with the inclinations of the
community at large, and even then the wishes of the majoiity are not
considered binding on the w^eaker party. Among the Angamis, m fact,
the social unit is not the village, but the khel (a term borroived from
the Afghan border), an exogamous subdivision of which there are
several in each village. There is gieat iivalry betw^een the khels^ which,
prior to Bntish occupation, led to bitter blood-feuds The following
extract from the report of the Political Officer in 1876 shows the utter
want of unity in an Angami Naga village : —

‘In the middle of July a party of foity men from Mozema went ovei
to Kohima and w^ere admitted by one of the kheh friendly to them,
Ining next to the Puchatsuma quaiter, into ivhich they passed and
killed all the} could find, viz one man and twenty-fue women and

POPULATION

2S9

childien. The people of the other kJwls made no effoit tu inteifere,
but stood looking on One of the onlookeis told me that he had never
seen such fine sport as the killing of the childien, for it was just like
killing fowls ’

This extraordinary sepaiation of khel from khd is the moie remarkable,
in that they must all be intimately connected by marriage, as a man is
compelled to take his wife from some khel othei than his own.

The \illages are, as a rule, built on the tops of hills, and, except
among the Sernas, aie of considerable size, Kohima containing about
800 houses They aie stiongly fortified and well guarded against
attack. The houses aie built closely togethei, in spite of the frequency
of destiuctive files. The posts and lafteis are of solid beams, and the
loof at the sides reaches nearly to the ground Those of the Lhotas
and Aos aie laid out in regular streets, but there is a complete lack of
symmetiy in the Angami and Serna villages.

Among the naked Nagas the men are often completely destitute of
clothing, and it is said that the women when woiking in the fields
sometimes lay aside the narrow stiip ot cloth which is their solitary
garment. At the opposite end of the scale come the Angamis, whose
dress is efiectne and pictuiesque. Their spears and daos are orna-
mented with red goats’ haii, and they wear gaiters and helmets of dyed
cane, and brightly coloured spoirans The Aos, too, have a nice taste
in dress. But the Lhotas are an untidy dirty tribe , and the woiking
dress for a man consists of a small cloth passed between the legs and
fastened round the w^aist, which barely serves the purpose for which it
is intended, w’hile a woman contents herself with a cloth, about the size
of an ordinaiy hand tow^el, round her w^aist. Both sexes aie fond of
ornaments, and used pigs’ tusks, sections of an elephant’s tusk, agates,
cainelians, necklaces of beads, shells, and brass ear-rings. The weapons
used by all the tribes aie speais, shields, and daos^ or billhooks. Their
staple food is iice, but tew things come amiss to a Naga, and they
eat pigs, bison, dogs, gui (big lizards), and pythons, and any kind of
game, how^ever putiid. Like other hill tribes, they arc great dnnkeis
of fermented beer

Oaths are generally confirmed by invoking the wiath of Heaven
on the sw^earer if he tells a lie. An AngamT who has sworn by the
lives of his khel will nevei tell a he He bares one shoulder, and
places his foot in a noose in which a piece of cow-dung has been placed
before taking the oath. The most careful supervision is, however,
necessary to ensure that the correct formula is employed, as by some
veibal quibble he may exempt himself from all liability. The van-
quished, too, occasionally eat dirt in a literal sense as testimony to the
sincciity of their vow's,

Adult maiiiage only is in vogue, and prioi to the perfoimance of

290

JVAGA HILLS

that ceremony the giils are allowed gieat latitude Those of the Aos
sleep in separate houses two or thiee togethei, and are visited nightly
by their lovers. These lovers aie, as a lule, membeis of the girlS
own khel^ whom she is debarred by custom from mauying , and, as
illegitimate children are raie, it is to be presumed that abortion and
infanticide aie not unknown. The foimer piactice is 111 vogue among
the Aos, while of the Angamis it was said to have been the rule for
the girl to retire alone into the jungle when she felt her time approach-
ing, and sti angle the baby, when it Avas boin, wuth her own hands
The other tribes are not quite so frankly promiscuous as the Aos, but
a Naga bride who is entitled to ivear the oiange blossom of virginity
on the occasion of her marriage is said to be extiemely raie The
following IS a description of the inariMge ceiemony of the Angamis
The young man, having fixed his choice upon a certain girl, tells his
father, who sends a friend to ascertain the wishes of her parents.
If they express conditional approval, the biidegroom’s father puts the
matter further to the test by strangling a fowl and watching the way in
which it crosses its legs w'hen dying If the legs are placed in an
inauspicious attitude, the match is immediately broken off, but if this
catastrophe is averted, the girl is informed of the favourable progress
of the negotiations. At this stage, she can e\ercise a powder of veto,
as, if she dreams an inauspicious dream wuthin the next thiee days,
hei suitor must seek a bride elsewdieie , but if all goes favourably, the
wedding day is fixed. Proceedings open with a feast at the bride’s
house, and in the evening she proceeds to her husband’s home , but,
though she sleeps there, he modestly retires to the bachelois’ club
The next day brings moie feasting, but night separates the young
couple as before. On the third day they visit their fields together, but
not till eight or nine days have elapsed is the village priest called in,
and the happy pair allowed to consummate their wishes. The
Angamis and the Aos do not, as a rule, pay money for their wuves, but
among the Lhotas and the Sernas the father of the girl generally receives
from 80 to roo rupees Divorces are not uncommon, especially in the
case of the Angamis, who do not take moie than one wife at a time
Widows aie allowed to remairy, but those of the Angami tribe are
expected to refiain from doing so if they have children

The dead aie, as a lule, buried m shallow graves in close vicinity to
their homes. The funeral is an occasion for much eating and drinking,
and among the Angamis the whole of a man’s property is sometimes
dissipated on his funeral baked meats. The friends of the deceased
lament vociferously round the giave till the coffin has been lowered
The conclusion of the ceremony is thus described by the late Mr.
McCabe, the officer who had most to do with the pacification of the
hills

AGRICULTURE

291

‘At this stage of the proceedings, the fiiends of the deceased
suddenly stopped sobbing, dried their eyes, and marched off m a
most businesslike manner. A civilized Naga, who had been as
demonstrative with his umbrella as his wariior friends had been with
their spears, solemnly closed it and retired. A large basketful of
dhdn (rice), millet, ddl (pulse), and Job’s- tears was now thrown into
the giave, and over this the earth was rapidly filled m ’

The Aos, howevei, do not bury their dead, but place them in
bamboo coffins and smoke them for a few weeks in the outer room of
the house The coipse is then removed to the village cemetery, and
placed on a bamboo platform. This cemetery mvaiiably occupies one
side of the mam road leading to the village gate

During the father’s lifetime his sons leceive shares of his landed
property as they mairy, with the result that the youngest son usually
inherits his father’s house The religion of the Nagas does not differ
materially from that of the other hill tribes m Assam. They have
a vague belief in a future life, and attribute their misfortunes to the
machinations of demons, whom they piopitiate with offeiings.

The custom which has attracted most attention, and which differen-
tiates the Nagas from othei Tibeto-Buiman tribes, such as the Bodos,
Mikhs, Daflas, and sub- Himalayan people, is their strange ciaving for
human heads Any head was valued, whether of man, woman, 01
child, and victims were usually murdered, not m fair fight, but by
treachery. Sometimes expeditions on a large scale weie undertaken,
and seveial villages combined to make a laid. Even then they
would usually retire if they saw leason to anticipate resistance Most
Angamis ovei fifty have more than one head to their credit, and the
chief mterpretei m the Kohima court is said to have taken eighteen in
his unregenerate days. Head-hunting is still vigorously prosecuted by
Nagas living beyond the frontiei, and human sacrifices are offered to
ensure a good rice harvest. A curious custom is the genna^ which
may affect the village, the khel^ or a single house. Persons under ‘a
ge 7 ina remain at home and do no work , nothing can be taken into or
hi ought out of their village, and strangers cannot be admitted. Among
othei quaint beliefs, the Nagas think that certain men possess the power
of turning themselves into tigers, while the legend of the Amazons is
represented by a village in the north-east, peopled entiiely by women,
who are visited by traders from the surrounding tnbes, and thus
enabled to keep up their numbers.

The ordinary system of cultivation is that knowm as jkum. The
jungle growing on the hill-side is cut down, and the undergrowth is
burned, the larger trees being left to rot where .
they he The ground ib then lightly hoed over, ffricuture.
and seeds of rice, maize, millet, Job’s-tears {Coix Lacryma), chillies,

292

JVAGA HILLS

and \arious kinds of \egetables dibbled in The same plot of
land IS cropped only for two }ears in succession, and is then
allowed to he fallow foi eight or nine years Fuither ciopping would
be liable to destroy the roots of ikra and bamboo, whose ashes
serve as inanuie when the land is next cleaied for cultivation, while
after the second harvest weeds spring up with such rapidity as to be
a serious impediment to cultivation. Cotton is growm, more especially
on the northern ridges inhabited by the Lhotas and Aos, wlio bring
down consideiable quantities for sale to the Marwaiis ot Golaghat A
more scientific form of cultivation is found among the AngamT Nagas,
whose nllages aie surrounded by admirably constiucted tei raced rice-
fields, built up with stone re taming- walls at different le\els, and
ungated by means of skilfully constructed channels, wliich distribute
the watei ovei each step in the series This system of cultivation is
believed to ha\ e extended northwards from Manipur, and to have been
adopted by the xA^nganus, parti) from their desire for better kinds of
gram than Job s-tears and millet, as jMm iice does not thrive well at
elevations much exceeding 4,000 feet, and paitly from a scaicity of
//ulm land. It has the furthei advantage of enabling the villageis to
grow then crops in the immediate neighbourhood of their homes,
a consideration of much importance before the introduction of British
rule compelled the tribes to live at peace with, one anothei Effoits
arc now being made to introduce this system of cultivation among
the xVos and the Sernas 'I'he Nagas do not use the plough, and the
agiicultural implements usually employed are light hoes, daos, lakes,
and sickles. No statistics aie available to show the cultivated aiea, 01
the area under diffeient crops Little attempt has been made to intro-
duce new staples. Potatoes when fust tiied did not fiuuiish, but a
subsequent experiment has been moie suc'cessful

Cattle aie used only foi food, and aie in consequence stuidiei and
fatter animals than those found m the plains of xAssam. The
domesticated miiha?i (Bos fro?ttahIj is also eaten , hut the Nagas^ like
other hill tubes m xVssam, do not milk their cows.

The whole of the hills must once have been covered with dense
evergreen foiest , but the jhTim system of cultivation, which necessitates
the periodical clearance of an area nearly five or six times as large as
that under cultivation m any given year, is very unfavourable to tree
growth. A ‘ reserved ’ forest, covering an area of 63 square miles, has
recently been constituted in the north-east corner of the District.
Elsewhere, the tribes are allowed to use or destioy the forest produce
as they please In the higher ridges oaks and pines aie found, while
low’er dowm the most \aluablc trees aie goman (Gmclina arlwrea)^
poma (Cednla I'oona)^ (Attoiafpiis Chaphuha)^ and miam (Bn-
ihojia javanica).

ADMINISTRA TION

293

The District has never been properly exploi ed, but the hills over-
looking the Sibsagar plain contain thiee coal-fields — the Nazira, the
Jhanzi, and the Disai. The Nazira field is estimated to contain about
35,000,000 tons of coal, but little has been done to work it. The coal
measures contain iron ore in the shape of clay ironstone and impuie
limonite, and petroleum is found m the Naziia and Disai fields.

The manufacturing industries of the Naga Hills are confined to the

production of the few lude articles requited for domestic use The

most important is the weaving of coaise thick cloth

of various patterns, the pievailmg colouis being dark Trade and

° communications.

blue — in some cases so dark as to be almost black —

A\ith led and yellow stripes, white, and bio\Mi Man> of these cloths
are tastefully ornamented with goat’s haii dyed led and cowiies lion
spear-heads, daos^ hoes, and rough pottery aie also made The
AngamI Nagas display a good deal of taste m matters of dress, and
a warrior m full uniform is an impressive sight , but the majority of
the tribes wear little clothing, and only enough is woven to satisfy the
wants of the household.

Wholesale tiade is entirely m the hands of the Mai wan merchants
known as Kayahs. The principal imports are salt, thread, kerosene
oil, and iron, and Kohima is the largest business centie The Nagas
tiade m cotton, chillies, and boats, which they exchange for cattle
and other commodities from the plains. The most important tiading
Milages are Khonoma, Mozema, and Lozema, and the tubes who aie
keenest at a bargain aie the Semas and Angamis. Members of the
latter tribe sometimes go as fai afield as Rangoon, Calcutta, and
Bombay, but the Semas nevei \enture beyond the boundaiies of their
own Piovince

In 1903-4, 73 miles of cait-roads and 470 miles of bridle-paths
were maintained in the District. The cart-road fiom Dimapui to Mani-
pui runs across the hills, connecting KohTma with the Assam-Bengal
Railway, C Generally speaking, the means of communication in the
Distnct aie sufficient for the requirements of its inhabitants.

For administrative purposes, the District is divided into two sub-
divisions, Kohima and Mokokchung. The Deputy-Commissioner is
stationed at Kohima, and has one Assistant, who is .

usually a European. Mokokchung is in charge of nnmstration.
a European police officer, and an engineer and a civil surgeon aie
posted to the District

The High Court at Calcutta has no jurisdiction in the District,
except in criminal cases in wffiich European British subjects are
concerned ; the Codes of Criminal and Civil Piocedure are not in
force, and the Deputy-Commissioner exercises powers of life and death,
subject to confiimation by the Chief Commissioner. Many disputes.

A^AGA HILLS

294

both of a civil and cuminal nature, are decided m the village without
lefeience to the courts. Theft is punished by the Nagas with the
utmost severity. If a man takes a little grain from his neighbour’s
field, he forfeits not only his own crop, but the land on which it has
been grown, while theft from a gianary entails expulsion from the
village and the confiscation of the offender’s property. Generally
speaking, the policy of Government is to interfere as little as possible
with the customs of the people, and to discourage the growth of any
taste for litigation Considering the short time that has elapsed smce
the Nagas were redeemed from barbarous savagery, the amount of
serious ciime that takes place within the boundaries of the District is
comparatively small

Land revenue is not assessed, except on a small estate held by the
American Baptist Mission A tax at the rate of Rs. 3 per house is
realized from the Angami N^as For other Nagas the rate is Rs. -2
and for foreigneis Rs. 5.

The table below shows the revenue from house tax and the total
revenue, in thousands of rupees —

i88o-i

1890-1

1900-1

1903-4

Revenue from house ta\

Total levenue

24'

1,05

E\clusive of forest leceipts

The civil police consist of 29 head constables and men under a sub-
inspector, but their sphere of action does not extend beyond Kohima
town and the Manipur cart-road. The force which is really responsible
for the maintenance of order in the District is the military police
battalion, which has a strength of 72 officers and 598 men. Prisoners
are confined in a small jail at Kohima, which has accommodation
for 32 pel sons.

Education has not made much progress in the hills since they first
came under Biitish rule. The number of pupils under instruction in
1890-1, 1900-r, and 1903-4 was 297, 319, and 647 respectively. At
the Census of 1901 only 1-3 per cent, of the population (2-5 males
and o-i females) were returned as literate. There were i secondary,
22 primary, and 2 special schools m the District in 1903-4, and 76
female scholars. More than two-thirds of the pupils at school were in
primary classes. Of the male population of school-going age, 5 per
cent, were in the primary stage of instruction. The total expenditure
on education in 1903-4 was Rs. 6,000, of which Rs. 256 was derived
from fees. About 32 per cent, of the direct expenditure was devoted
to primary schools

The District possesses 3 hospitals, with accommodation for 24 m-

NAGAR TALUK

295

patients. In 1904 the number of cases treated was 21,000, of whom
500 were in-patients, and 200 operations were performed. The
expenditure was Rs. 5,000, the whole of which was met from
Provincial revenues.

The advantages of vaccination are fully appreciated by the people,
and, though m 1903-4 only 39 per 1,000 of the population were pro-
tected, this was largely below the average for the five preceding yeais.

[B C Allen, District Gazetteer of the Ndgd Hills (1905) A
monograph on the Naga tribes is under preparation ]

Nagamangala. — Northern taluk of Mysore District, Mysore State,
lying between 12° 40' and 13° 3' N. and 76° 35' and 76° 56' E , with
an area of 401 square miles. The population m 1901 was 76,581,
compared with 69,265 in 1891 The taluk contains one town, Naga-
mangala (population, 3,516), the head-quarters ; and 366 villages The
land revenue demand in 1903-4 was Rs. 1,23,000 The Shimsha
river forms part of the eastern boundary, while the Lokapavani has its
source in the south-west Rocky hills in the north and west are partly
covered with scrub jungle West of Nagamangala is a hill of talcose
argillite, like potstone, used for pencils. There are about 130 tanks,
30 of them being large. The soil is generally poor and rdgi is the
staple crop. Rice is almost the only ‘wet crop.’ The areca gardens
were destroyed in the famine of 1878, but some coco-nut trees survived.
Sheep are abundant Fine draught bullocks are bred, Karadihalli
being the centre for the breed of Hallikar cattle.

Nagapatnam. — Subdivision, tdluk^ and town in Tanjore District,
Madras. See Negapatam.

Nagar. — Chiefship in KashmTi. See Hunza-Nagar.

Nagar Taluka. — Tdluka of Thar and Parkar District, Smd, Bom-
bay, lying between 24° 14' and 25° 2' N. and 70° 31' E., bordering
on the Rann of Cutch, with an area of 1,618 square miles. The
population fell from 41,178 in 1891 to 25,355 in 1901. The tdluka
contains 31 villages, of which Nagar Parkar is the head-quarters. The
density, 16 persons per square mile, is below the District average.
The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 28,000.
The tdluka^ which grows chiefly bdjra^ depends for cultivation upon
the rainfall and a few wells, and is theiefore subject to famine.

Nagar Taluk. — Western tdluk of Shimoga District, Mysore, lying
between 13° 36' and 14° 6' N. and 74° 52' and 75° 23' E , with an area
of 528 square miles. The population in 1901 was 40,455, compaied
with 42,841 in 1891. The tdluk contains two towns, Kalurkatte (popu-
lation, 918), the head-quarters, and Nagar (715); and 205 villages.
The land revenue demand m 1903-4 was Rs. 1,16,000. Except in
the north the tdhek is surrounded by mountains and hills, the
streams from which flow north-west, uniting in the Sharavati. Those

296 NAGAR TALUK

in the south-west run directly do\^n the Ghats westwaid, and leach the
sea at Coondapoor. In the north-west is the isolated Ilonnai hohli
belonging to South Kanaia, part of the endowments of a temple at
Kollur below the Ghats. The principal mountain within the taluk
IS Kodachadri (4,411 feet), in the north-west. North of this is the
Kollur ghat road to the low countiy, and in the south-west the Haidar-
garh or Hosangadi ghat road. The taluk is puiely Malnad or
‘highland,’ the whole densely wooded. The south is composed of
a cluster of hills, in a basin formed by which is situated Nagar towm,
formerly called Bednur. The most open pait is the valley of the
Sharavati West of this the countiy becomes wilder and wildei as
the Ghats are approached. East and noith of the Shaiavati the
country is geneially more level. The forests heie are dense and contain
more tiinbei -trees than the west, where the soil is shallowei, with much
laterite. Areca-nuts, pepper, cardamoms, and rice are the pioducts
of this legion. Theie aie no ‘diy ciops’ The aicca-nuts aie of the
fust quality, but the gardens largely belong to Biahmans, who aie
dependent foi then cultivation on impoited laboui. Rice is expoited
to the coast, and aieca-niits by way of Birui to Bellary and Walajapet.
All other articles of consumption and clothing are bi ought fiom the
plain countiy, paitly by merchants who come to buy aieca-nuts, but
chiefly by ryots from TTrthahalli, Avinhalli, and Kollur, either on
bullocks or by porters.

Nagar Town. — Town in the Nagar taluk of Shimoga District,
Mysore, situated in 13® 49' N. and 75^ 2' E., 55 miles west of
Shimoga town. Population (1901), 715, less than half what it was
before the removal of the taluk head-quarters in 1893, The place
was originally called Bidaruhalli, ‘bamboo village’, about 1640 it
became the capital of the Keladi kings undei the name of Bidarui
or Bidanur (Bednur). It grew so lapidly that it is said to have con-
tained neaily 100,000 houses, and was called Nagaia (‘the city’).
The walls weie 8 miles m ciicumfeience, and had ten gates. The city
was taken in 1763 by Haidar All, wdio gave it the name Haidai nagar,
established there his principal aisenal and mint, and encouiaged
merchants to settle in the place. It suffeied much during the wars
with Tipu Sultan, and m 1783 was captured by the British, but Avas
retaken. Tipu desired to restore its prosperity, but his fanatical
religious and other measures ruined the place. Nagar, as it \vas called
from 1789, was a centre of the insurrection of 1830 The munici-
pality, formed in 1881, became a Union in 1904. The leceipts and
expendituie during the ten years ending 1901 averaged Rs. 600. In
1903-4 they were Rs. 600 and Rs. 980.

Nagar Village (i) — Ancient capital of Birbhum District, Bengal
See Rajnagar.

NAGAR KARNUL

297

Nagar Village (2) — Village in Tanjore District, Madias. See
Negapatam.

Nagar Village (3) — Village in the Kulii subdivision and tahsll of
Kangra District, Punjab, situated m 32° 7' N. and 77° 14' E., on the
left bank of the Beas river, 14 miles north of Sultanpur, the tahsll
head-quarteis Population (1901), 591 Nagar was the capital of
the Kulu Rajas, whose ancient palace ciowns an eminence looking
down upon the river from a height of about 1,000 feet, and is now
used as the lesidence of the Assistant Commissioner, Kulu. It was
greatly damaged by the eaithquake of April 4, 1905. It commands
a magnificent view, and itself foims a striking feature of the village.
Nagar is also the head-quaiters of the Kulu Foiest division and of
the Assistant Engineei, Kulu, and contains a post and telegraph office.

Nagarakhanda. — An ancient province corresponding geneially
with the Shikarpur taluk of Shimoga Distiict in Mysore. It was
a ^seventy’ province, and its capital was at Bandanikke, or Bandalikke,
also called Bandhavapura, now deseited and in lums According to
an old inscription, Nagarakhanda wm at one time luled by ‘the wise
Chandra Gupta ’

Nagaram Island. — Island in Godavari District, Madras, lying
between 16° 20' and 16° 35' N. and 81® 44' and 81° 57' E. It is
surrounded by the w^estein mouth of the Godavari (Vasishta), a large
branch of this called the Vainateyam, and the Bay of Bengal. The
island has an area of 137 square miles, and is one of the most fertile
parts of the fertile Godavari District. The Gannavaram aqueduct
across the Vainateyam connects it with the navigation and irrigation
system of the Central Godavari Delta This woik, the largest of its
kind in the delta, consists of 49 arches of 40 feet span, and is con-
structed to carry 70,000 cubic yards of water per hour. It irngates
about 33,000 acres A large part of the island is devoted to coco-nut
plantations and plantain gardens.

Nagar Devla. — Town m the Pachoia tdlnka of East Khandesh Dis-
trict, Bombay, situated in 20° 35' N. and 75® 16' E , about 5 miles
east of Kajgaon station Population (1901), 6,050. West of the town
lb a ruined Hemadpanti temple of Mahadeo The town contains
a school for boys wuth 190 pupils.

Nagar KarnuL— South-eastern taluk of Mahbiibnagar District,
Hyderabad State, wuth an area of 621 square miles Its population
m 1901, including w^as 77,095, compared with 73,155 in 1891

The tdhik contained 146 villages, of which 19 are jdgtr. In 1905
some villages from this taluk were transferred to Amrabad, and the
number of khdlsa villages in it is now 112. Nagar Karnul (popula-
tion, 2,428) is the head-quarters. The land revenue in 1901 was 2*5
lakhs. The Wanparti and Gopalpet samasthms are situated to the

298 NAGAR KARNtJL

south-west, with populations of 62,293 and 16,301, and 124 and 35
villages, respectively. Their areas aie about 599 and 169 squaie miles.
Farthei south lies the sainasihd^i of Jatpol with 89 villages, a popula-
tion of 31,613, and an area of about 429 square miles.

Nagarkot. — Ancient town in Kangia Distiict, Punjab. See Kangra.

Nagarkovil. — Town m Travancore State, Madias. See Nagercoil.

Nagar Parkar. — Head-quarters of the Nagar tdluka in Thar and
Parkar Distiict, Sind, Bombay, situated m 24° 21' N and 70° 47^ E ,
120 miles south of Umaikot Population (1901), 2,454. It is con-
nected by good roads with Islam Kot, Mitlii, Adigaon, Pitapui, Birani,
and Bela m Cutch. The manufactures include weaving and dyeing of
cloth , and there is a local tiade in wool, giain, coco-nuts, piece-goods,
hides, and metals, besides a tiansit tiade in gram, camels, cattle, wool,
and ghl. The village is believed to be of some antiquity, about a
mile distant is Sardhara, with a temple to Mahadeo, and a spiing sacred
among Hindus In 1859 Nagai Parkai was the scene of a lebelhon,
for the suppression of which a British foice was dispatched horn
Hyderabad. The ringleaders weie tiansported foi a teim of yeais
Four miles north-west from Nagar Paikar in Bhodisar are the lemains of
three ancient Jam structures, supposed to have been built m 1375 and
1449. contains a dispensaiy and two vernacular schools,

attended by 152 pupils, of which one with 56 pupils is a girls’ school.

Nagaur. — Head-quarters of a district of the same name in the
State of Jodhpur, Rajputana, situated in 27° 12' N. and 73° 44' E , on
the Jodhpur-Bikaner Railway. Population (1901), 13,377. The town
possesses a post office, an Anglo-vernacular school, and a hospital.
The principal manufactures are brass and iron utensils, ivory toys,
camel saddles, and cotton cloth. The town is said to take its name
from Its traditional founders, the Naga Rajputs, and was held succes-
sively by Prithwi Raj Chauhan, Muhammad Ghori, and the chiefs of
Jodhpur, save for a time when it was possessed by the Bikaner chief
by giant from Akbar, and by another Rathor family by giant fiom
Shah Jahan. The town wall is more than 4 miles in length, between
2-| and 5 feet thick, and on the average 1 7 feet high. The battlements
bear many Arabic and Persian inscriptions, obtained from mosques
demolished by Maharaja Bakht Singh in oidei to repaii breaches
caused in warfare. Of the numeious religious edifices, two Hindu
temples and a five-domed mosque are especially noteworthy. The fort,
rising above the town, has a double wall nearly a mile long, the outei
being 25 feet and the inner 50 feet above the ground, with a thickness
of more than 30 feet at the base and about 12 feet at the top The
principal objects of interest in the fort are some palaces, a fountain
with seventeen jets (dating from Akbar’s reign), a mosque elected by
Shah Jahan, and a cave claimed by both Hindus and Musalmans

iYAGLYA tojva

299

as a place of retreat for then foimei saints The Nagaui district fur-
nishes a fine bleed of bullocks, famous thioughout Noithern India.
The village of Manglod (20 miles east of Nagaui town) has a very
old temple with a Sanskiit inscription dated a.d. 604, which recoids
Its lepair duiing the reign of a king Dhuhlana. This is the oldest
inscription yet discoveied m Jodhpur.

Nagercoil {A^dgarkovil, ‘the temple of the seipent’). — Town in the
Agastlswaram taluk of Tiavancore State, Madras, situated in 8° 10' N
and 77° 27' E, within 7 miles of the Aramboli pass Population
{1901), 25,782, consisting of 20,045 Hindus, 2,570 Musalmans, and
3,167 Chiistians. Once the capital of Travancore, it is now the
head-quarteis of a District and wSessions Judge, a Munsif, and other
officials. The London Missionaiy Society maintains a college, schools,
a punting press, and a hospital. The natne Christian women turn
out fine lace which commands a busk sale.

Nagina Tahsil. — Noith-eastern talisil of Bijnoi District, United
Provinces, comprising the parganas of Nagina, Barhapura, and Afzal-
garh, and lying between 29° 13' and 29° 43' N. and 78° 17' and
78° 57' E,, with an area of 453 square miles Population fell from
183,147 in 1891 to 156,898 in 1901. There are 464 villages and two
towns; Nagina (population, 21,412), the tahsil head-quarters, and
Afzalgarh (6,474). demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was

Rs 2,76,000, and for cesses Rs. 49,000. The density of population,
346 persons per square mile, is the lowest in the Distiict. The tahsil
contains a considerable area of forest It is crossed by several small
streams, and also by the Ramganga and its tiibutaiy the Khoh. The
soil IS rich, and irrigation is provided m the Nagina pargana by small
canals from the Khoh and Gangan, but the climate is not healthy,
and the considerable decrease of population between 1891 and 1901
is due to the unfavourable seasons ending with the excessive lain of
1894. Cultivation also suffers from the depredations of wild animals.
In 1903-4 the area under cultivation was 197 square miles, of which
14 were irrigated Canals supply the greater part of the irrigated aiea.

Nagina Town. — Head-quaiters of the tahsil of the same name m
Bijnor District, United Piovinces, situated m 29° 27' N. and 78° 26' E.,
on the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway, and at the terminus of a
metalled road from Bijnor. Population (1901), 21,412, of whom
14,887 were Musalmans. The early history of the town is unknown,
but It is mentioned m the Ain-i-Akbarl as head-quarters of a mahdl or
pargana. During the rise of the Rohilla powder in the middle of the
eighteenth century a fort was built here. In 1805 the place w'as sacked
by the Pindans under Amir Khan, and from 1817 to 1824 it was the
head-quarters of the newly-formed District called Northern Moradabad.
During the Mutiny the town was the scene of several conflicts betw^een

\OL. X\lll. u

NAG 'IN A TOWN

rival parties, as well as of the final defeat of the lebels on April 21,
1858, which crushed the revolt in Bijnor. Nagina is a laige and busy
place, with good buck houses and paved streets, which dram into a
tributary of the Khoh on the east and into the Karula on the west.
It contains the old fort, now used as a tahsili, a dispensary, a tahslll
school, and a branch of the Ameiican Methodist Mission. Nagina
has been a municipality since 1886. During the ten yeais ending
1901 the income and expendituie aveiaged Rs 12,000. In 1903-4
the income was Rs 18,000, chiefly ft 0111 octroi (Rs. 15,000), and the
expendituie was Rs 18,000. A market is held twice a week, when
there is a considerable trade in sugar, iice, and cotton Nagina is
celebrated for the excellent workmanship of its carved ebony waies,
such as walking-sticks, tiays, boxes, &:c , which are frequently inlaid
with ivory. Large quantities of small glass phials are blown heic, and
exported to Hardwar for the pilgiims who cairy away Ganges watei in
them In formei days matchlocks were largely made, and some iron-
work is still produced. Hempen sacking and ropes and lacquered
goods aie also made. 'J'he tahslll school has 192 pupils, and the
municipality aids 12 prnnaiy schools attended by 513 pupils

NSgod State (or Unchahra). — A sanad wState in Central India,
under the Political i\gent m Baghelkhand, lying between 24° 12' and
24° 39' N. and 80° 28' and 80° 53' E., with an area of about 501 square
miles. Until the eighteenth centuiy the State was known as Unchahia,
from the name of its original capital. It is cut up into two sections,
the isolated pargana of Dhanwahl, which lies east of Maihar, having
been granted m 1859 in recognition of good services rendered during
the Mutiny. The greater pait of the territory is situated in the high-
level plain to the east of the Panna range, but a small portion falls
within the hilly tract. Nagod is watered by the Satna river, a tributary
of the Tons, and by several smaller streams, which are not, however,
available for irrigation.

Geologically, Nagod presents several features of inteiest. The
greater part is covered with fine sandstones of the Bandair (Bhander)
series and the Sirbu shales Limestone of a superior quality, known
commercially as Nagod limestone, is met with in the form of low hills
close to the chief town, supplying the most valuable source of lime
known in India. In 1828 Captain Franklin announced the existence
of fossil remains in this rock; but subsequent search has failed to
substantiate this discovery, which, as giving a clue to the age of the
Vindhyans, would have been of the highest scientific importance.
The famous Bharhut stupa was constructed of the Bandair sandstone,
the excellence of which is proved by the marvellous sharpness of the
caiving on the fragments discovered.

The chiefs of Nagod aie Parihar Rajputs, one of the four Agnikula

NAGOD STATE

3or

clans, whose traditional home is on Mount Abu The history of their
migration into Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand is of considerable
interest, but exceedingly difficult to unravel. In the seventh century
the Gaharwars held Bundelkhand, but were driven out or at least
subordinated by an incursion of Parih^ Rajputs from the west, who
established themselves in the country lying between Mahoba and Mau
(near Chhatarpur), and rapidly extended their sway ovei most of this
region In the ninth century they in their turn became subordinate to
the great Chandel clan , and, though not exterminated, a large section
was obliged to migrate still farther eastwards into Baghelkhand, where,
according to their annals, Raja Dhara Singh seized the fort of Naro
from the Teh Rajas in 1344. In 1478 Raja Bhoja obtained Unchahra,
which he made the chief town, and which remained so until 1720,
when the capital was moved to Nagod by Raja Cham Singh. Later
on the Parihars lost to the Bundelas and Baghelas practically all their
possessions, except the limited territoiy they now hold, and preseived
this remnant only by submitting to their adversaries.

When the British became paramount after the Treaty of Bassein
(1802), Nagod was held to be tributary to Panna, and was included in
the sa 7 tad granted to that State in 1807. In recognition, however, of
the fact that the territory had been in the possession of the family
before the establishment of Chhatarsahs power and had continued to
be independent thioughout the supremacy of the Bundelas and of Ali
Bahadur, a separate sanad was granted to Lai Sheoraj Singh in 1809
confirming him in his possessions. He was succeeded in 1818 by
his son, Balbhadra Singh, who was deposed in 1831 for murdering his
brother. His successor, Raghavendia Singh, who was then a minor,
leceived powers m 1838 and obtained a new sanad, succession dues to
the value of Rs. 8,000 being paid to the British Government. He
involved the State in debt, and it was placed undei management in
1844. In the Mutiny the chief behaved most loyally in assisting
Europeans, and in recognition of these services received a grant of
eleven villages now forming the pargana of Dhanwahi, which had
belonged to the confiscated State of Bijer^hogarh. In 1862 he
leceived a sanad of adoption, and in 1865 he again assumed manage-
ment till his death m 1874. He was succeeded by his son, the present
chief, Raja Jadavendra Singh, who was then nineteen The Raja
began to exercise powers in 1882, but was deprived of them in 1894
for mismanagement, and retired to Benares, where he lived as a lecluse
for ten years, refusmg all inducements to leturn. In August, 1904,
however, he agreed to accept an allowance and to reside at Satna.
The chief has the title of Raja and receives a salute of 9 guns.

The antiquities of Nagod are considerable, but have not, as yet, been
fully investigated. The old routes from Malwa and Southern India to

302 jyAGOD STATE

Kausambhi and Siava&ll probably met at oi near Bhaihut (24° 37'' N.
and 80° 53' E.), where a magnificent Buddhibt formerly stood,

the lemams of which weie discovered by Sii Alexander Cunningham
in 1873. Though entiiely luined, a large numbei of caived stones
were recoveied and placed in the Calcutta Museum. It must have
oiiginally been ^ery similar to the great at Sanchi, though the

railing is inoie ornamental, and possibly of later date. On one of
the gate\\ays a lecoid^ was discovered refen mg to its erection dining
the lule of the Sunga dynasty, who flourished in the second and first
centuries ii c A mediaeval temple was also exhumed close by. Othei
places of interest are Lalpahar, a hill near the sfil/a, l^hcre theie are
a large cave and an inscribed lecoid of the Kalachuri dynasty of
1158; Sankaigarh , Khoh, foimerly a large city and capital of the
Tell Rajas, wheie several impoitant records dating from a.d. 475 to
554 have been discovered , Bhumara, Majhgawan, Kan Talai, and
Patami De\T At the last place is a small but w’elhp rescued temple
m the Gupta st>le of the fouith or fifth century, Avith some latei Jam
lemains of the tenth and eleventh centuries

The population of the btate has been (1881) 79,629, (1891) 84,097,
and (1901) 67,092 'J'he laige deciease of 20 pei cent dunng the last
decade is due to famine. Hindus numbei 55,989, 01 84 per cent. ,
Animists, 8,701, mainly Gonds and Kols , and Musalmans, 2,331. The
State contains one town, Unchahka, its old capital , and 336 villages
Baghelkhandi is the piincipal language, spoken by 85 per cent, of the
population. About 86 per cent, of the inhabitants aie supported by
agncultuie, 12 per cent by geneial laboui, and 2 per cent, by trade.

Of the total aiea, 223 square miles, 01 45 per cent , arc cultnated, of
i\hich only 343 acres are irrigable. Of the uncultivated area, 87 squaie
miles are cultivable, 167 square miles are under forest, and the rest is
waste Rice and wheat each occupy 43 squaie miles, or i8 per cent
of the cropped area, hodon^ 38 squaie miles, 01 16 pei cent., giam,
37 squaie miles, or 15 per cent.; barley, 32 square miles, or 9 pei
cent ; sainan and kakun^ 24 square miles, 01 10 pei cent , and joivdi^
II square miles.

Besides the Panna-Satna high road, metalled loads connect Nagod
with Unchahia and Unchahra with Parsmania, 86 miles in all, of which
37 aic maintained by the State British post offices aic maintained at
Nagod and Unchahra

The State was in 1905 under superintendence, being managed by
the Political Agent assisted by a dlwan. The total revenue from all
sources is 1*7 lakhs, of which one lakh is derned from land. About
Rs. 73,000 is alienated in grants to members of the chief’s family and

^ A. Cunningham. ‘The Bharhut Stupa,’ Indian Antiquary^ \ol. mv, p. 138,
^ol. xxij p. 225.

NAGPUR DIVISION

303

other jdgirddrs. The principal heads of expenclituie are Rs 70,000
on general administration, including the expendituie of the chief,
Rs. 20,000 on public works, and Rs 12,000 on police A twelve years’
revenue settlement, based on the productiveness of the soil and its
position as regards villages and the caste of the holder, was made in
1901. The incidence of the land revenue demand is Rs i-S per
acre of cultivated area, and ir annas per acre of total area About
159 square miles, or 32 per cent, of the total area, are alienated in grants.
About 3 per cent of the total population were able to read and wiite
m 1901. The State contains eight schools and two hospitals

Nagod Village. — Capital of the State of the same name in Cential
India, situated in 24° 34' N and 80° 36' E, on the Amian ri\er,
17 miles west of Satna, on the Satna-Panna high load. Population
(1901), 3,887. The name is deiived fiom Naga Vadha, ‘the slaughter
of the Nagas,’ fiom whom it is said to have been seized by the ances-
tors of the Nagod chief. Nagod became the capital of the State m
17 20. It was a Biitish cantonment in 1857 , and on the mutiny of
the wing of the 50th Regiment of Native Infantry stationed heie,
the chief placed his own forces at the disposal of the Political officei,
and finally sent him with some other Euiopean lefugees from Banda
safely under escort to Jubbulpore. A British post office, a hospital,
a school, and a ^^Z/^-bungalow are situated in the place.

Nagor, — Town in Jodhpur State, Rajputana See Nagaud

Nagore.— Village in Tanjore District, Madras. See Negapatam.

Nagpur Division. — Southern Division of the Cential Provinces,
extending from 18° 42' to 22° 24' N. and from 78° 3' to 8i° 3' E.
It consists of a large plain lying along the southern base of the Satpura
hill langes, and comprised in the valleys of the Wardha and Wain-
ganga riveis, with a long strip of hilly countiy on the eastern bordei
The Nagpui Division includes fi\e Districts, as shown below ; —

Land revenue

District

Area in
square miles *

Population
1901 ^

and cesses, |

1903-4. ,

in thousands

of rupees

Wardha.

2,428

385.103

7,05

; Nagpur .

3.840

751.844

10,94

Chauda .

10,156

3.965

581.315

3.75

Bhandaia

663,062

5.34

Balaghat

3.132

325.371

2,78

1 Total

23,521

2 706,695

29,86 i

L .J

* The DistriLt figures of area and population have been adjusted to allow for
some changes of territory which have taken place since the Census of 1901,
including the projected transfer of part of Chanda District, with an area ol
593 square miles, to the Madras Presidency

Of these, Wardha and Nagpur in the valley of the Wardha nvei on

304

NAGPUR DIVISION

the west, with shallow black soil and a light lainfall, constitute the
most important cotton-growing tract in the Province, while Bhandaia
and parts of Chanda and Balaghat in the valley of the Wainganga
have been named the ‘ lake country’ of Nagpur, owing to the number
of fine tanks constructed for the nrigation of rice To the north of
Balaghat and down the eastern side of Chanda stretch lines of hills
approaching the Godavari river in the extreme south of the Province.
The head-quai ters of the Commissionei are at Nagpur City. The
population of the Division was 2,758,116 in 1881, and increased to
2 j 9S2,539 in 1891, or by 8 per cent., the decade having been generally
prosperous. At the Census of 1901 the population had fallen
to 2,728,063, 01 by 8-| per cent, the principal losses being in the
eastern or rice Districts, which were severely affected by distress or
famine m several years, while the population of the western or cotton
Districts, which escaped more lightly, remained almost stationary.
In 1901 Hindus numbered nearly 84 per cent of the total, and
Animisls 13 per cent., while the followeis of other lehgions included
Musalmans (86,931), Jams (6,624), and Chiistians (7,113), of whom
3,039 were Europeans and Eurasians. The total aiea is 23,521 square
miles, and the density of population 115 persons per square mile.
The Division contains 24 towns out of the Provmcial total of 59, and
7,898 villages. Nagpur city (population, 127,734), the head-quarters
of the Central Provinces Administration, is the commeicial centre, and
Kamptee (38,888) IS a cantonment 10 miles from Nagpur. Chanda,
Bhandak, and Ramtek contain interesting archaeological remains.

Nagpur District.— District of the Central Provinces, lying between
20° 35' and 21® 44' N. and 78° 15' and 79® 40' E, in the plain to
which it gives its name at the southern base of the Satpura Hills,
with an area of 3,840 squaie miles. It is bounded on the north
by Chhmdwara and Seon! , on the east by Bhandara , on the south
and west b> Chanda and Wardha, and along a small strip on the
north-west by the Amraotl District of Berar The greatei part of
Nagpur District is an undulating plain, but it is traveised by low hill

ranges. In the north a strip of the Satpura Hills

Physical included within its limits, nariow on the west but

S-SDCCtS

widening to a bieadth of 12 miles or moie towards
the east. Immediately south of them lies the western extremity of the
Ambagarh hills, on which stand the well-known temples of Ramtek.
On the western bordei another low range of hills runs down the
length of the District, and, aftei a break formed by the valley of
the Wunna river, continues to the south-east past Umrer, cutting
off on Its southern side the valley of the Nand. A thud small
range called the Pilkapar hills ciosses the Katol tdhsti fiom north
to south. There are also a few detached hills, notably that of Sita-

NAGPUR DISTRICT

305

B\U)i m Nagpiu city, A\hich is visible for a long distance
country lound The hills attain no great altitude, the highest'^ftftk^"*^
not exceeding 2,000 feet, but vary greatly in appearance, being m
places extremely picturesque and clothed with forest, while elsewhere
they are coveied by loose stones and biushwood, or are wholly bare
and and. The Wardha and Wainganga rivers flow along part of
the western and eastern borders respectively, and the drainage of the
District is divided between them. The waters of about a third of
its aiea on the west aie earned to the Wardha by the Jam, the
AVunna, and other minor sti earns. The centre is drained by the
Pencil and Kanhan, which, flowing south through the Satpuia Hills,
unite just above Kamptee, where they are also joined by the Kolai ,
fiom here the Kanhan carries their joint waters along the noithern
boundary of the Umier tahsll to meet the Wainganga on the Bhan
dara border. To the east a few small streams flow direct to the
Wainganga. The iichest part of the District is the western half of
the Katol tahsll^ cut off by the small ranges described above. It
possesses a soil profusely feitilc, and teems with the richest gaiden
cultivation Beyond the Pilkapar hills the plain countiy extends to
the eastern border. Its surface is scarcely ever level, but it is closely
cultivated, abounds in mango-groves and trees of all sorts, and to-
wards the east is studded with small tanks, which form a featuie
in the landscape. The elevation of the plain country is fiom 900
to 1,000 feet above sea-level

The primary foimation of the rocks is sandstone, associated with
shale and limestone. The sandstone is now covered by tiap on
the west, and broken up by granite on the east, leaving a small
diagonal strip running through the centre of the District and ex-
panding on the north-west and south-east. The juxtaposition of
tiap, sandstone, and granite locks in this neighbourhood invests the
geology of Nagpur with special interest.

The forests are mainly situated in a large block on the Satpura
Hills to the north-east, while isolated patches are dotted on the hills
extending along the south-western bordei. The forest growth vanes
with the nature of the soil, sdj (^Termirialia to??ie?itosa\ achdr {JBucha-
nania latifolia\ and te 7 idii {Diospyros tome?itosa) being characteristic
on the heavy soils, teak on good well-drained slopes, salat {Boswellici
serrata) on the steep hill-sides and ridges, and satin-wood on the
sandy levels. In the open country mango, mahud {Bassia latifolid),
tamaiind, and bastard date-palms aie common.

There is nothing notewoithy about the wild animals of the District,
and from the sportsman’s point of view it is one of the poorest in
the Province. Wild hog abound all over the countiy, finding shelter
in the large grass reseives 01 groves of date-palm, Partudges, quail,

NAGPUR DISTRICT

^o6

and sand-grouse are faiily common; bustaid are fiequentl) seen in
the soutli, and floiican occasionally. Snipe and duck aie obtained
in the cold season m a few localities

Nagpur has the leputation of being one of the hottest places in
India duiing the summer months. In May the temperature lises
to ii6°, while it falls on clear nights as low as 70° Duiing the
rains the highest day temperature seldom exceeds 95°, and the lowest
at night is about 70°. In the cold season the highest tempeiatuie
IS between 80° and 90°, and the lowest about 50°. Except for thiee
months from April to June, when the heat is intense, and in Septem-
ber, when the atmosphere is steamy and the moist heat very trying,
the climate of Nagpur is not unpleasant.

The annual lainfall averages 46 inches, but less is leceived in the
west than in the east of the District. Complete failuie of the lain-
fall has in the past been veiy laie^ but its distribution is capiicious,
especially towaids the end of the monsoon, when the fate of the
haivest is m the balance.

There is no histoiical lecord of Nagpur prior to the commence-
ment of the eighteenth century, when it formed part of the Gond
kingdom of Deogaih, in Chindwara. Bakht Buland,
IS ory. reigning pimce of Deogarh, proceeded to Delhi,

and, appreciating the advantages of the civilization which he there
witnessed, determined to set about the development of his own terri-
tories. To this end he invited Hindu artificers and husbandmen to
settle m the plain country, and founded the city of Nagpur. His
successor, Chand Sultan, continued the work of civilization, and le-
moved his capital to Nagpur. On Chand Sultan’s death in 1739
there were disputes as to the succession, and his widow^ invoked the
aid of Raghuji Bhonsla, who w’as governing Berar on behalf of the
Pesh^va. The Bhonsla family were originally headmen of Deoia,
a village in the Satara District of Bombay, from which place then
present representative derives his title of Raja Raghuji’s grand-
father and his two brothers had fought in the aimies of SivajT, and
to the most distinguished of them was entiusted a high military
command and the collection of chaiith in Beiar Raghuji, on being
called in by the contending Gond factions, replaced the two sons
of Chand Sultan on the throne from which they had been ousted
by a usurper, and retired to Berar with a suitable rew’ard for his
assistance Dissensions, howwer, bioke out between the brothers ,
and in 1743 Raghuji again intervened at the request of the elder
brother, and diove out his rival. But he had not the heart to giv^e
back a second time the countiy he held w’lthin his grasp. Burhan
Shah, the Gond Raja, though allowed to letain the outward insignia
of royalty, became practically a state pensioner, and all real power

HISTORY

307

passed to the T^Iaiathas Hold and dccMsive in action, RaghujI was
the type of a Maratha leadei , he saw in the tioubles of oLhei states
an opening foi his own ambition, and did not even require a pre-
text for plundei and ln^aslon. Twice his armies invaded Bengal,
and he obtained the cession of Cuttack Chanda, Chhattlsgarh, and
Sambalpur were added to his dominions between 1745 and 1755,
the year of his death His successor Janoji took pait in the wars
between the Peshwa and Nizam , and aftei he had in turn betrayed
both of them, they united against him, and sacked and burnt Nagpui
in 1765. On Janoji’s death his brothers fought for the succession,
until one shot the othei on the battle-field of Panchgaon, 6 miles
south of Nagpur, and succeeded to the regency on behalf of his
infant son Raghuji II, who was Janojfs adopted hen. In 1785
Mandla and the upper Narbada valley were added to the Nagpui
dominions by treaty with the Peshwa ISIudhojT, the regent, had
courted the favour of the "Hiilish, and this polic) was continued for
some time by his son RaghujI II, who acquired Hoshangabad and
the lower Narbada valley. But in 1803 united with Sindhia against
the British Government. The two chiefs were decisively defeated
at Assaye and Argaon ; and by the Treaty of Deogaon of that yeai
RaghujI ceded to the British Cuttack, Southern Berar, and Sambalpur,
the last of which w'as, howcvei, relinquished m 1806.

To lire close of the eighteenth century the Maratha administiation
had been on the whole good, and the country had prospered. The first
four of the Bhonslas were military chiefs with the habits of rough
soldieis, connected by blood and by constant familiar intercourse wnth
all their principal officeis. Descended from the class of cultivators,
they ever fav^ouied and fostered that order I'hey were rapacious, but
seldom cruel to the lower classes. Up to 1792 their territories were
rarely the theatre of hostilities, and the area of cultivation and revenue
continued to increase undei a fairly equitable and extremely primitive
system of government. Aftei the Treaty of Deogaon, hovvevei, all this
was changed. Raghuji had been deprived of a third of his territories,
and he attempted to make up the loss of revenue from the lemaindei
The villages were meicilessly rack-rented, and many new taxes imposed.
The pay of the tioops w^as m arrears, and they maintained themselves
by plundering the cultivatois, while at the same time commenced the
raids of the Pindaris, who became so bold that in 1811 they advanced
to Nagpur and burnt the suburbs It was at this time that most of the
numerous village forts weic built, to which on the approach of these
marauders the peasant letired and fought foi bare life, all he possessed
outside the walls being already lost to him.

On the death of Raghuji II in 1816, his son, an imbecile, was soon
supplanted and miudered by the notoiious MudhojI or Appa Sahib.

3o8

NAGPUR DISTRICT

A treaty of alliance pioviding foi the maintenance of a subsidiary force
by the Biitish was signed in this year, a Resident having been appointed
to the Nagpur court since 1799 In 1817, on the outbieak of war
between the Biitish and the Peshwa, Appa Sahib threw off his cloak
of friendship, and accepted an embassy and title fiom the Peshwa
His troops attacked the British, and were defeated in the biilliant action
at SiTABALDi, and a second time lound Nagpui city As a result of
these battles, the remaining portion of Berar and the teiritories in
the Naibada valley weie ceded to the Biitish. Appa Sahib was lein-
stated on the throne, but shortly afterwards was discovered to be agaim
intriguing, and was deposed and forwarded to Allahabad in custody.
On the way, however, he corrupted his guards, and escaped, first to
the Mahadeo Hills and subsequently to the Punjab. A grandchild
of Raghuji II was then placed on the throne, and the territories were
administered by the Resident from 1818 to 1830, m which yeai the
young rulei known as RaghujI III was allowed to assume the actual
government He died without heirs in 1853, and his teiritories weie
then declaied to have lapsed. Nagpur was administered by a Com-
missionei until the formation of the Central Provinces in i86r. During
the Mutmy a scheme for a rising was formed by a regiment of irregulai
cavalry in conjunction with the disaffected Muhammadans of the city,
but was frustiated by the prompt action of the civil authoiities, sup-
ported by Madras troops from Kamptee Some of the native officeis
and two of the leading Muhammadans of the city were hanged from
the rampaits of the fort, and the disturbances ended. The aged
princess Baka Bai, widow of Raghuji II, used all her influence in
support of the British, and largely contributed by her example to keep
the Maratha districts loyal.

In seveial localities in the District are found circles of rough stones,
occasionally extending over considerable areas. Beneath some of them
fragments of pottery, flint arrow-heads, and non implements, evidently
of great antiquity, have been discovered. These were constiucted by
an unknown race, but are ascribed by the people to the pastoral Gaolis,
and are said to be their encampments or burial-places. The remains of
the fort of Parseonl, constiucted of unhewn masses of rock, which aie
also asenbed to the Gaolis, certainly date from a very early peiiod. The
buildings at Ramtek, Katol, Kelod, and Saoner are separately
desciibed. Other remains which may be mentioned are the old Gond
fort of Bhiugarh on the Pench river, and the temples of Adasa and
Bhugaon, and of Jakhapur on the Saoner road

The population of the District at the last three enumerations was as

Population. 697 - 356 , (1891) 757,863; (1901)

751,844 Between i88i and 1891 the increase was
nearly 9 per cent , the District having been generally prosperous.

POPULATIOA^

309

During the last decade the population has been almost stationaiy. The
number of deaths exceeded that of births in the yeais 1894 to 1897
inclusive, and also in 1900. There was a considerable loss of popula-
tion in the wheat-growing tiacts of Nagpur and Umrer, while the towns
and the cotton lands of Katol showed an increase. There aie twelve
towns — Nagpur City, the District head-quarteis, Kamptee, Umrer,
Ramtek, Narkher, Khapa, Katol, Saoner, Kalmeshwar, Mohpa,
Kelod, and Mowar — and 1,681 inhabited villages. The urban popu-
lation amounts to 32 per cent of the total, which is the highest
proportion in the Province. Some of the towns are almost solely
agricultural, and these as a rule are now declining in importance. But
others which are favourably situated for tiade, or for the establishment
of cotton factories, are growing rapidly. The following table gives
the principal statistics of population in 1901 . —

Numbet of

£3 ?

0 M

« CMh

Tahiti

in s(
miles

Populatio
square n

S 0*0

OS'S
c S S

cj C g K c

Nagpui

871

417

296,117

340

+ 06

24,85s

Ramtek

1,129

451

156, 663

13Q

- 03

3,820

Umrer

1,040

457

136,476

I3I

- 8.6

3,610

Katol .

Soo

356

162.588

200

+ 35

4,718

District total

3,840

1,681

751,844

193

- 0.8

37,003

About 88 per cent of the population are Hindus, nearly 6 per cent.
Muhammadans, and 5 per cent. Animists. There are 2,675 Jains and
481 Parsis, Three-fourths of the Muhammadans live in towns Many
of them come from Hyderabad and the Deccan, and they are the most
turbulent class of the population. About 7 7 per cent of the population
speak Marathi, 9 per cent. Hindi, 5^ per cent Gondl, 5 per cent. Uidu,
and I per cent. Telugu. It is noteworthy that nearly all the Gonds
were returned at the Census as letaimng their owm vernacular

The principal landholdmg castes are Biahmans (23,000), Kunbis
(152,000), and Marathas (11,000). The Maratha Brahmans naturally
form the large majoiity of this caste, and, besides being the most ex-
tensive proprietors, are engaged in money-lending, trade, and the legal
profession, and almost monopolize the better class of appointments in
Government service. The Kunbis are the great cultivating class. They
are plodding and patient, with a strong affection for their land, but
wanting in energy as compared with the castes of the northern Districts.
The majonty of the villages owned by Marathas are included in the
estates of the Bhonsla family and their relatives. A considerable pro-
portion of the Government political pensioners aie Marathas, Many
of them also hold villages or plots , but as a rule they are extravagant

NAGPUR DISTRICT

310

in then living, and several of the old Maratha nobility have fallen in
the woild. The native army does not attract them, and but few are
sufficiently well educated for the more dignified posts in the civil
employ of Government. Raghvis (12,000), Lodhis (8,000), and Kirars
(4,000), representing the immigrants from Hindustan, are exceptionally
good cultivators. The Kirars, however, are much given to display and
incui extravagant expenditure on their dwelling-houses and jewelleiy,
while the Lodhis are divided by constant family feuds and love of
faction There are neaily 46,000 Gonds, constituting 6 pei cent,
of the population. They have generally attained to some degree of
civilization, and grow rice instead of the light millets which suffice for
the needs of their fellow tribesmen on the Satpuras. The menial caste
of Mahars form a sixth of the whole population, the great majority
being cultivate! s and labourers. The lural Mahar is still considered as
impure, and is not allowed to drink fiom the village well, noi may his
childien sit at school with those of the Hindu castes. But theie are
traces of the decay of this tendency, as many Mahars have become
wealthy and risen in the world About 58 per cent, of the population
were returned as dependent on agncultuie in 1901.

Christians number 6,163, of whom 2,870 are Europeans and Euia-
sians, and 3,293 natives Of the natives the majority are Roman
Catholics, belonging to the Fiench Mission at Nagpur There aie also
a number of Presbyterians, the converts of the Scottish Free Church
Mission. Nagpur is the head-quarters of a Roman Catholic diocese,
which supports high and middle schools for European and Eurasian
children and natives, and orphanages for boys and girls, the clergy being
assisted by French nuns of the Order of St Joseph who live at Nagpur
and Kamptee. A mission of the Free Church of Scotland maintains
a number 'of educational and other institutions at Nagpur and in the
interior of the Distiict. Among these may be mentioned the Hislop
aided college, several schools foi low -caste children, an orphanage and
boai ding-school foi Christian girls, and the Muie Memorial Hospital for
women. A small mission of the Chuich of England is also located at
Nagpui, and one of the Methodist Episcopal Church at Kamptee.

The prevailing soil is that known as black cotton. It seldom attains
to a depth of 12 feet, and is superimposed on a band of conglomerate

^ and brown clay. Rich black clay is found only m

Agriculture. ,, ^ . -i •

very small quantities, and the commonest soil is a

dark loam mixed with limestone pebbles and of considerable fertility

The latter covers 65 per cent, of the cultivated area , and of the

remainder, 27 pei cent, consists of an inferior variety of the same soil,

very shallow and mixed with gravel or sand, and occurring principally

in the hilly country. Little really poor land is thus under cultivation.

About 383 square miles are held wholly or partially free of revenue.

AGRICULTURE

311

and 2,500 acies of Go\ernment land l\ave been settled on the ryotwan
system The balance of the District aiea is held on the ordmai>
mdlguzari tenure. The following table shows the principal statistics ol
cultivation in 1903-4, areas being m squaie miles —

7 ahsil

Total

1 Cultivated

1 1 ligated

j Cultivable j

1 waste 1

Foiests

Nagpur

871

1 578

! H 9 '

Ramtek

1,129

1 544

' 166 1

343

Umrei

1,040

1 5<54

1 2

Katol

8 00

540 ,

: 114 '

Total

.^1840

2,226 '

740

515

Joim? and cotton aie the principal crops, covering (either alone 01
mixed with the pulse a?Jia 7 ^ 661 and 633 squat c miles respectively,
Of othci crops, ^^heat occupies 353 squaie miles, til 84 square miles,
linseed 132 squaie miles, and gram 31 square miles. Cotton and
joivdr are giown piincipally in the west and centre of the District, iice
in the cast, where the lainfall is hcaviei, and wheat, linseed, and gram in
the ccntie and south The main featuie ot leccnt yeais is the increase
in the aiea under autumn ciops, cotton and jozvdr, w^hich are frequently
grown in rotation The acreage of cotton alone and cotton with arhar
has more than doubled since 1864, and that of jowdr alone and
jowdr with arJiar has risen by 23 pei cent This change is to be attri-
buted mainly to the high puces prevailing foi cotton, and partly also
to the succession of unfa voui able spring harvests w'hich have lately
been experienced. ^\ heat shows a loss of 146 square miles and linseed
of 106 during the same period. There are two piincipal vaiieties
of cotton, of whicli that w'lth a very shoit staple but yielding a largei
supply of lint IS geneially pieferied. Cotton-seed is now a valuable
commeicial product. The lecent yeais of short rainfall have had
a prejudicial effect on the rice ciop, the area under which is only
22 squaie miles as against 50 at settlement. Most of the rice growm
IS transplanted. A number of profitable vegetable and fruit crops are
also giowai, the most important of w'hich are oranges, which covered

1.000 acres in 1903-4, chillies, nearly 6,000 acres; castor, nearly

4.000 acres, tobacco, 450 acres, and turmeric, 170 acres. About

17.000 acres w’ere under fodder-grass in the same year. The leaf of
the betel-vine gardens of Ramtek has a special reputation, and it is also
cultivated at Parseoni and Mansar, about 130 acres being occupied
altogether. Kapuri pan (betel-leaf) is giown for local consumption
and bengald pan for export.

The occupied aiea increased by 12 pei cent during the currency
of the thirty years’ settlement (1863-4), and has further increased
by 3 per cent, since the last settlement (1893-5). The scope for yet

312

NAGFUR DISTRICT

more extension is very limited. The area of the valuable cotton crop
increases annually, and more care is devoted to its cultivation than
formerly Cotton fields are manured whenever a supply is available,
and the practice of pitting manure is growing in favour In recent
years the embankment of fields with low stone walls to protect them
from erosion has received a great impetus in the Katol tahsll During
the ten years ending 1904, Rs. 79,000 was advanced under the Land
Improvement Loans Act for the construction of wells, tanks, and field
embankments, and 1*77 lakhs under the Agriculturists’ Loans Act

Owing to the scaicity of good grazing grounds, the majority of the
agricultural cattle are imported, only one-fourth being bred locally.
The hilly country in the north of the Ramtek tahsll is the principal
breeding ground Cattle are imported from Berar, Chhindwara, and
Chanda Buffaloes are kept for the manufacture of gku Goats are
laigely bred and sold foi food, while the flocks are also hired for their
manure. Cattle races take place annually at Silli in Umrer, at Irsi in
Ramtek, and at Sakardara near Nagpur, these last being held by the
Bhonsla family. Large weekly cattle markets are held at Sonegaon,
Kodamendhi, Bhiwapur, and Mohpa.

Only 24 square miles aie irrigated, most of which is iice and the re-
mainder vegetable and garden crops. Wheat occasionally gets a supply
of water, if the cultivator has a well in his field. The District has 995
irrigation tanks and 4,302 wells. A pioject for the construction of a
large reservoir at Ramtek, to ungate 40,000 acres and protect a further
30,000 acies, at an estimated cost of 16 lakhs, has been sanctioned

The Government forests extend over 515 square miles, of which
nearly 350 aie situated on the foot-hills of the Satpuras on both sides

Forests ic Bench river, and 170 consist of small blocks

’ ’ lying parallel to the Waidha boundary, and extending

from the west of Katol to the south and east of Umier. Small teak is
scattered through the flist tract, mixed with bamboos on the extreme
north, but in no well-defined belts. Satin-wood, often nearly pure,
IS found on the sandy levels. The second tract contains small but
good teak in its central blocks from Katol to the railway, but poor
mixed forests to the north, and chiefly scrub to the south in the Umrer
tahslL Owing to the large local demand, the forests yield a substantial
revenue. This amounted in 1903-4 to Rs. 63,000, of which Rs. 10,000
was realized from sales of timber, Rs 16,000 from firewood, and
Rs. 26,000 from grazing.

Deposits of manganese occur in several localities, principally in the
Ramtek tahsll, A number of separate mining and prospecting leases
have been granted, and a light tramway has been laid by one firm from
Tharsd station to Waregaon and Mandri, a distance of about 15 miles.
The total output of manganese in 1904 was 66,000 tons. Mines are

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS

313

being worked at Mansai, Kandii, Satak, Lohdongri, Waiegaon, Kachur-
wahi, Mandri, Pali, and other villages. A quarry of white sandstone
IS worked at Silewara on the Kanhan river, from which long thin slabs
well suited foi building aie obtained.

The weaving of cotton cloths with silk holders is the staple hand
mdustiy, the piincipal centres being Nagpur city and Umrei. Gold
and silver thread obtained from Burhanpui is also
woven into the holders. The silk is obtained from Trade and
Bengal and from China through Bombay, spun into
thin thread, and is made up into different thicknesses locally. Tasar
silk cocoons aie leceived from Chhattlsgaih. A single cloth of the
finest quality may cost as much as Rs 150, but loin-cloths worth from
Rs 8 to Rs 25 a pair, and saris from Rs. 3 to Rs. 25 each, are most in
demand White loin-cloths with red borders are woven at Umrer, the
thread being dyed with lac, and colouied saris are made at Nagpur.
Cheap cotton cloth is produced by Momins 01 Muhammadan weavers

at Kamptee and by Koshtls at Khapa. Coarse cloth is also woven by the
village Mahars, hand-spun thread being still used for the warp, on ac-
count of Its supeiioi stiength, and is dyed and made up into carpets and
mattresses at Saoner and Patansaongi, Sawaigaon, Mowar, and Narkher
also have dyeing industries. In 1901 nearly 13,000 persons were returned
as supported by the silk industry, 39,000 by cotton hand-weaving, and
2,500 by dyeing. Biass-working is earned on at Nagpur and Kelod,
and iron betel-nut cutters and penknives are made at Nagpur.

Nagpur city has two cotton-spinning and weaving mills — the Em-
press Mills, opened in 1877, and the Swadeshi Spinning and Weaving
Company, which started work in 1892 Their aggregate capital is 62
lakhs Nagpur also contains 12 ginning and ir piessing factories,
Kamptee 3 and 2, and Saoner 3 and 2, while one or more are situated

in seveial of the towns and laiger villages of the cotton tract. The

majority of these factories have been opened within the last five years
Ihey contain altogethei 673 gins and 83 cotton-pi esses, and have an
^^ggiegate capital of 29 lakhs approximately. Neaily 11,000 persons
were shown as supported by employment in factories in 1901, and the
numbers must have increased considerably since then The ginning
and pressing factories, however, woik only foi four or five months in
the yeai. The capitalists owning them are principally Marwm Banias
and Maratha Biahmans, and m a smaller degree Muhammadan Bohras,
Parsis, and Europeans.

Raw cotton and cotton-seed, linseed, til, and wheat are the staple
exports of agricultural produce. Oranges are largely exported, and an
improved variety of wild plum {Zizyphus Jujuba), which is obtained by
grafting. The annual expoits of oranges are valued at a lakh of rupees.
Betel-leaf is sent to Northern India. Yam and cotton cloth are sent

3^4

nAgpur district

all over India and to China, Japan, and Burma by the Empress Mills,
while the Swadeshi Mills find then best niaiket in Chhattlsgarh Hand-
woven silk-boidered cloths to the value ot about 5 lakhs annually
are expoited from Nagpui city and Umrei to Bombay, Berai, and
Hyderabad, the piincipal demand being from Maratha Brahmans.
Manganese 01 e is now a staple export. Many ai tides of produce aie
also received at Nagpur ftoin othei Districts and re-expoited. Among
these may be mentioned rice fiom Bhand^a and ChhattTsgarh, timber
and bamboos from Chanda, Bhandara, and SeonT, and bamboo matting
fiom Chanda Cotton and grain are also leceived from the surround-
ing Districts off the line of raihvay. Sea-salt from Bombay is commonly
used, and a ccitain amount is also received from the Salt Hills of the
Punjab. Mauritius sugar is imported, and sometimes mixed with
the juice of sugai-cane to give it the appearance of Indian sugar, w’hich
IS more expensive by one pound in the lupee. Gi/r^ 01 refined sugai,
comes from the United Provinces, and also fiom Barsi and Sholapur,
in Bombay. Rice is imported from Chhattlsgarh and Bengal, and a
certain amount of wheat from Chhindvvaia is consumed locally, as it
IS cheaper than Nagpui wheat. The finer kinds of English cotton
cloth come from Calcutta, and the coarser ones fiom Bombay. Keio-
sene oil is bought in Bombay or Calcutta according as the rate is
cheaper. The use of tea is rapidly mcreasing all over the District.
Soda-water is largel) consumed, about ten factories having been estab-
lished at Nagpur. Woollen and iron goods come from England.
A European firm practically monopolizes the expoit trade in gram,
and shares the cotton trade with Marw^an Banias and Maratha Brah-
mans. Lad Banias export hand-woven cloth, and INIuhammadans
and Marvvaris manage the timber tiade. Bohras import and retail
stationery and hardw are, and Cutchl Muhammadans deal in groceries,
cloth, salt, and kerosene oil. Kamptee has the largest weekly maiket,
and the Sunday and Wednesda} bazars at Nagpui aie also important.
The other leading markets, including those for cattle which have
already been mentioned, are at Gaori and Kelod for gram and timbei,
and at Mowar foi gram. A laige fair is held at Ramtek in November,
at w^hich general merchandise is sold, and small religious fairs take
place at Ambhora, Kudhari, Adasa, and Dhapew^ara,

The Great Indian Peninsula Railway from Bombay has a length of
27 miles in the District, wdth 3 stations and its terminus at Nagpur city.
From heie the Bengal-Nagpur Railway runs east to Calcutta, with
5 stations and 34 miles within the limits of the District. The most
important trade routes are the roads leading north-w^est from Nagpur
city to Chhindw^ara and Katol, the eastern road to Bhandara through
Kuhi, and the north-eastern road to Seonl through Kamptee. Next to
these come the southern roads through Mul to Umicr, and to Chanda

ADMINISTRA TION

31S

Famine.

through Bori, Jam, and Warora. There is some local traffic along the
road to Amraotl through Bazargaon The District has 231 mrles of
metalled and 74 miles of unmetalled roads, and the annual expenditure
on maintenance is Rs 99,000. The Public Works department has
charge of 253 miles of road, and the District council of 52 miles
There are avenues of trees on 185 miles, Nagpur being better provided
for in this respect than almost any other District in the Province
Considering its advanced state of development, the District is not very
well supplied with railways, and there appears to be some scope for the
construction of feeder lines to serve the more populous outlying tracts

Nagpur District is recorded to have suffered from failures of crops in
1819, 1825-6, and 1832-3. There was only slight distress in 1869. In
1896-7 the District was not severely affected, as the
jowdr^ cotton, iil^ and wheat crops gave a fair out-
turn. Numbers of starving wanderers fiom othei Districts, however,
flocked into Nagpur city. Relief measures lasted for a year, the highest
number in receipt of assistance being 18,000 in May, 1897, and the total
expenditure was 5 lakhs. In 1899-1900 the monsoon failed completely,
and only a third of a normal harvest was obtained. Relief measures
lasted from September, 1899, to November, 1900, 108,000 peisons, or
19 per cent, of the population, being in receipt of assistance in August,
1900. The total expenditure was 19 5 lakhs. The work done consisted
principally of breaking up metal, but some tanks and wells were con-
structed, and the embankment of the reservoir at Ambajhen was raised.

The Deputy-Commissioner has a staff of four Assistant or Extra-
Assistant Commissioners. For administrative purposes the District is
divided into four tahslls^ each of which has a tahsll-
ddr and a naib-tahsilddr. Forests are in charge of a
Forest officer of the Imperial service , and the Executive Engineer
of the Nagpur division, including Nagpur and Wardha Districts, is
stationed at Nagpur city.

The civil judicial staff consists of a District Judge and five Sub-
ordinate Judges, two Munsifs at Ramtek and Katol, and one at each
of the other tahslls^ and a Small Cause Court Judge for Nagpur city
The Divisional and Sessions Judge of the Nagpur Division has juris-
diction in the District Kamptee has a Cantonment Magistrate,
invested with the powers of a Small Cause Court Judge.

Under the Maratha administration the revenue was fixed annually.
The Marathas apparently retained as a standard the demand which
they found existing when they received the country from the Gonds.
This was called the am jamahandi ; and at the commencement of e\ery
year an amount varying partly with the character of the previous
season, and partly with the financial necessities of the central Govern-
ment, was fixed as the revenue demand. Increases of revenue were,

VOL. XVIII. X

Administration.

3x6

NAGPUR DISTRICT

however, expressed usually as fractions on the ain jamahandL The
local officers or kamatshddrs^ on receiving the announcement of the
revenue assessed on their charge, called the pdiels or headmen of
villages together and distributed it over the individual villages accord-
ing to their capacity The pdtel then distributed the revenue over the
fields of the village, most of which had a fixed proportionate value
which determined their share of the revenue Neither headmen nor
tenants had any proprietary rights, but they were not as a rule liable to
ejectment so long as they paid the revenue. Under the earlier Maratha
rulers the assessment was fairly equitable; but after the Treaty of
Deogaon the District was severely rack-rented, and villages were let
indiscriminately to the highest bidder, while no portion of the rental
was left to the pdf els. At the commencement of the protectorate after
the deposition of Appa Sahib, there were more than 400 villages foi
which no headman could be found to accept a lease on the revenue
demanded The revenue was at once reduced by 20 per cent. Culti-
vation expanded during the management by the British, and some
increase was obtained, the assessment being made for periods of from
three to five years. During the subsequent period of Maratha govern-
ment the British system was more or less adhered to, but there was
some decline in the revenue due to lax administration. Many of the
cultivating headmen were also superseded by court favourites, who were
usually Maratha Brahmans. The demand existing immediately prior
to the first long-term settlement was 8-77 lakhs. The District was
surveyed and settled in 1862-4 for a period of thirty years, the demand
being fixed at 8*78 lakhs. On this occasion proprietary rights were con-
ferred on the village headmen During the currency of the thirty years’
settlement, which was effected a few years before the opening of the
railway to Bombay, the condition of the agricultural classes was ex-
tremely prosperous. The area occupied for cultivation increased by
12 per cent., and the prices of the staple food-grains by 140 per cent ,
while the rental received by the landowners rose by 20 per cent. On
the expiry of this settlement, a fresh assessment was made between 1893
and 1895. The revenue demand was raised to 10-57 lakhs, or by
18 per cent, on that existing before revision, Rs. 75,000 of the revenue
being ‘ assigned.’ The experience of a number of bad seasons follow-
ing on the introduction of the new assessment, during which the
revenue was collected without difficulty, has sufficiently demonstrated
its moderation. The average incidence of revenue per cultivated acre
IS R. o-i 2-8 (maximum Rs. 1-4-1 1, minimum R, 0-6), while that of
the rental is Rs. 1-0-3 (maximum Rs. 1-13-10, minimum R. 0-9-1).
The new settlement is for a period varying from eighteen to twenty
years in different tracts. The collections of land and total revenue in
recent years are shown below, in thousands of rupees : —

ADMIJ^ISTRA TION

18P0-1

1890-1

IQOO-l

1903-4

Land levenue

Total revenue

8,27

15,78

8,56

18,40

10,62

18,96

9:98

2 1,39

The management of local affairs outside municipal areas is entrusted
to a District council and four local boards, each having jurisdiction
over one iahsil. The income of the District council in 1903-4 was
Rs. 1,05,000, while the expenditure on public works was Rs. 34,000,
on education Rs 27,000, and on medical relief Rs 6,000. Nagpur,
Ramtek, Khapa, Kalmeshwar, Umrer, Mowar, and Saoner are
municipal towns.

The police force — under a District Supermtendent, who is usually
aided by an Assistant Superintendent — consists of 1,006 officers and
men, with a special reserve of 45. There are 2,130 village watchmen
for 1,693 inhabited towns and villages. N^pur city has a Central jail,
with accommodation for 1,322 prisoners, including 90 females. The
daily average number of prisoners in 1904 was 710. Printing and
binding, woodwork (including Burmese carving), cane-work, and cloth-
weaving, are the principal industries carried on in the jail.

In respect of education the District stands third in the Province,
nearly 5 per cent, of the population (9*2 males and 0*7 females) being
able to lead and write. The percentage of children under instruction
to those of school-going age is 14. Statistics of the number of pupils
are as follows. (1880-1) 10,696, (1890-1) 12,394, (1900-1) 14,991,
(1903-4) 14,141, including 1,135 The educational institutions

comprise two Arts colleges, both at Nagpur city, with 170 students,
one of these, the Morns College, also containing Law classes with 42
students; 5 high schools, 16 English middle schools, 17 vernacular
middle schools, and 147 primary schools. The District also contains
two training schools and four other special schools. The expenditure
on education in 1903-4 was 1*74 lakhs, of which i lakh was denved
from Provincial and Local funds, and Rs. 30,000 from fees.

The District has 17 dispensaries, with accommodation for 201 in-
patients In 1904 the number of cases treated was 270,025, of whom
1,905 were m-patients, and 6,560 operations were performed. The
expenditure was Rs. 40,000. Nagpur city also contains a lunatic
asylum with 142 inmates, a leper asylum with 30 inmates, and a
veterinary dispensary.

Vaccination is compulsory only in the municipal towns of Nagpur,
Umrer, and Ramtek. The number of persons successfully vaccmated
in 1903-4 was 33 per 1,000 of the District population.

[R H. Craddock, Settlement Report (1899). A District Gazetteer is
being compiled.]

X 2

318 NAGPUR TAHSiL

Nagpur Tahsil — Central taksil of the Distiict of the same name,
Central Provinces, lying between 20® 46' and 21® 23' N and 78° 44'
and 79° 19' E., with an area of 871 square miles. The population
in 1901 was 296,117, compared with 294,262 in 1891. The general
density is 340 persons per square mile, and the lural density 136. The
tahsil contains foui towns — Nagpur City (population, 127,734), the
head-quaiters of the Province, District, and tahsil^ Kamptee (38,888),
K^lmeshwar (5,340), and Saoner (5,281)— and 417 inhabited
villages Excluding 42 square miles of Government forest, 80 per
cent, of the available area is occupied for cultivation. The cultivated
area rn 1903-4 was 578 square miles. The demand for land revenue in
the same year ivas Rs 2,76,000, and for cesses Rs 26,000 The tahsil
comprises the fertile plains of Kalmeshwar and Nagpur, the plateau of
Kauras, a continuation of the Katol uplands, and the undulating
Wunna valley. Cotton and jowdr are the principal crops, but there is
a considerable area under wheat in the Kalmeshwar and Nagpur plains

Nagpur City. — Capital of the Central Provinces, and head-quarters
of the District and tahsil of the same name, situated in 21° 9' N. and
79° Y E., on the Gieat Indian Peninsula Railway, 520 miles from
Bombay, and on the Bengal-Nagpui Railway, 701 miles from Calcutta,
the two lines meeting here. The city stands on a small stieam called
the Nag, from which it takes its name. Its site is somewhat low, sloping
to the south-east, with an open plain beyond, while to the noith and
west rise small basaltic hills, on one side of which is situated the fort
of SitabaldT, on another the residence of the Chief Commissioner,
and on a third the great reservoir which supplies the city with water
Nagpur is steadily increasing in importance, the population at the
last foul enumerations having been- (1872) 84,441, (1881) 98,229,
(1891) 117,014, and (1901) 127,734. The population in 1901 included
104,476 Hindus, 17,368 Muhammadans, 760 Jains, 436 Parsis, and
3,794 Chiistians, of whom 1,780 were Europeans and Eurasians.

Nagpur was founded at the beginning of the eighteenth century by
the Gond Raja, Bakht Buland. It subsequently became the head-
quarters of the Bhonsla Rajas, and in 1861 of the Central Provinces
Administration. The battles of SitabaldT and Nagpur were fought here
m 1817. Two small riots have occurred in recent years — one in 1896
at the commencement of the famme, and one in 1899 on the enforce-
ment of plague measures — but both were immediately suppressed
without loss of life. Nagpur itself possesses no archaeological remains
of interest, but some sculptures and inscribed slabs have been collected
in the Museum from various parts of the Province. The city is also
singularly bare of notable buildings ; and since the Bhonsla palace was
burnt down in 1864, there is nothing deserving of mention. The
residence of the present representative of the family is situated in the

NAGPUR CITY

319

Sakardara Bagh, about a mile from the city, where a small menagerie
IS maintained. But the two fine reservoirs of Ambajheri and Telinkherl
to tbe west of the city, the Juma talao (tank) between the city and the
1 ail way station, and the Maharajbagh and Telinkherl gardens form
worthy monuments of the best period of Bhonsla rule, and have been
greatly improved under British administration. The Maharajbagh also
contains a menageiie The hill and fort of Sitabaldi form a small
cantonment, at which a detachment of mfantry from the Kamptee
garrison is stationed. Nagpur is the head-quarters of two Volunteer
battalions, whose combined strength in the station itself is five
companies.

Nagpur was constituted a municipality in 1864. The municipal
receipts and expenditure duiing the decade ending 1901 averaged
Rs. 3,28,000. In 1903-4 the income was Rs 4,63,000, including octroi
(Rs. 2,31,000), water rate (Rs. 34,000), and conservancy (Rs. 26,000),
and the expenditure was Rs 4,51,000, the chief items being refunds
(Rs. 68,000), water-supply (Rs. 91,000), conseivancy (Rs. 65,000),
up-keep of roads (Rs. 15,000), drainage (Rs. 14,000), and repayment
of loans (Rs 22,000) The water-supply is obtained from the Amba-
jheri reservoir, distant four miles from the city. The works were first
constructed in 1873, the embankment of the old tank being raised
X 7 feet, and pipes laid to carry water to the city by means of gravitation
at a cost of 4 lakhs In 1890 an extension was carried out at a cost of
3 lakhs to serve the higher parts of the city and civil station, which
could not previously be supplied through want of sufficient head
The embankment was again raised by famine labour in 1900, and its
present length is 1,033 yards, the greatest height being 35 feet. The
catchment area of the tank is 6^ square miles, and the water surface
412 acres In order to prevent the waterlogging of the site of the
city, as a result of the constant intake from an extraneous source of
supply, a scheme for a surface drainage system has now been undertaken.
In addition to the drainage scheme a sewage farm is proposed, and the
cost of the whole project is estimated at about 10 lakhs. A concession
has recently been granted by the municipal committee for the construc-
tion of a system of electric tramway lines along the principal roads.

Nagpur IS the leading industrial and commercial town of the centre
of India, its trade being principally with Bombay The Empress IMills,
in which the late J. N. Tata was the chief shareholder, were opened ii^
1877 They contain 1,400 looms and 67,000 spindles, the present
capital being 47 lakhs. Their out-turn of yarn and cloth in 1904 was
valued at 61 lakhs, and they employ 4,300 operatives The Swadeshi
Spinning and Weaving Mills were opened in 1892 with a capital of
15 lakhs; they have 180 looms and 16,500 spindles, employ r,roo
opeiatives, and produced goods to the value of lakhs in 1904. In

320

NAGPUR CITY

addition to the mills, twelve cotton-ginning and pressing factories con-
taining 287 gins and ii presses are now working, with an aggregate
capital of 1 6-47 lakhs. The city contains eleven printing presses, with
English, Hindi, and Marathi type, and one English weekly and two
native papers are published, besides the Central Provinces Law Reports,
The principal hand industry is cotton-weaving, in which about 5,000
persons are engaged. They produce cotton cloths with silk borders
and ornamented with gold and silver lace. Numbers of orange gardens
have been planted in the vicinity of the city, and the fruit grown bears
a very high reputation.

Nagpur is the head-quarters of the Central Provinces Administration
and of all the Provincial heads of departments, besides the Commis-
sioner and Divisional Judge, Nagpur Division, a Deputy-Postmaster-
General, an Inspector of Schools, and Executive Engineers for Roads
and Buildings and Irrigation. The Inspector-General of Agriculture
for India, the Deputy-Comptroller of Post Offices, Bombay Circle, and
the Archdeacon of Nagpur also have their head-quarters here It
contains one of the two Provincial lunatic asylums and one of the three
Central jails. Numerous industries are earned on in the Central jail,
among which may be mentioned printing and binding, woodwork (in-
cluding Burmese carving), cane-work, and cloth-weaving. All the forms
and registers used in the public offices of the Province, amounting to
about ten million sheets annually, are pnnted or lithographed in the
Nagpur jail, which contains thirty presses of different sizes. The Agricul-
tural department maintains a model farm, which is devoted to agricul-
tural experiment and research The Victoria Technical Institute is now
under construction as a memoiial to the late Queen Empress. When
finished it will take over the Agricultural and Engineenng classes in
the schools, and also teach various handicrafts. Nagpur is the head-
quarters of a Roman Catholic diocese, with a cathedral and convent.
There is also a mission of the Free Church of Scotland, of which the
Rev, S Hislop, whose ethnographical and other writings on the Cential
Provinces are well-known, w^as for long a member. The Morris and
Hislop Colleges prepare candidates for degrees in Arts , they are aided,
but not maintamed, by Government, and had 207 students in 1903-4.
The Morris College also prepares candidates for degrees m Law, and
42 students are taking this course The other educational institutions
compnse three aided high schools, containing together 404 students ;
and, besides middle school branches attached to the high schools, four
English middle schools, of which two are for Muhammadan and Telugu
boys respectively, and forty-five primary schools. The St. Francis de
Sales and Bishop^s schools are for European boys, and the St. Joseph’s
Convent school for girls They are attended by 520 children. The
special institutions consist of male and female normal schools for

NAIGA WAN REBAI

321

teachers, and the agricultuial school. The noimal schools train stu-
dents to qualify for teaching in rural schools. They are entirely sup-
ported from Piovmcial revenues, and contain 39 male and 19 female
students, both classes of whom receive stipends or scholarships. The
agricultural school has 42 students ; it is connected with the model
farm, and gives instruction m improved methods and implements of
agriculture to subordinate Government officials and the sons of land-
owners. The medical institutions comprise the Mayo and Dufferm
Hospitals for males and females respectively, with combined accom-
modation for 112 in-patients, and 9 othei dispensaiies.

Nahan State. — Native State in the Punjab. See Sirmur.

Nahan Town. — Capital of the Sirmur State, Punjab, situated in
30° 33' N and 77® 20' E , on a picturesque range of the Outer Hima-
layas, at an elevation of 3,207 feet. Population (1901), 6,256. Founded
in 1621 by Raja Kami Parkash, it has since been the residence of the
Rajas and the capital of the State. West of the old town, in which is
the Raja’s palace, lies the Shamsher cantonment for the State troops,
while to the east is a small grassy plain surrounded by houses and
public buildings. The town is administered by a municipal board, and
possesses a school, a civil and a military hospital, a jail, a police station,
and other offices On a spur east of the town stands the Shamsher Villa,
built m the Italian style by Raja Sir Shamsher Parkash, GC.S.L, in
1881. The iron foundry employs 600 men.

Nahr Sadikiyah (or Cholistan) — Tahsil in the Mmchinabad
nizdinat^ Bahawalpur State, Punjab, lying between 29® 29' and
30° 18' N and 73® 7' and 74° i' E , with an area of 625 square miles.
The population in 1901 was 26,758, compared with 23,215 in 1891
It contains 127 villages. The tahsil is called after the Sadikiyah canal,
which runs through it from end to end, and will, when completed, have
a total length of 120 miles. The tahsil^ which has only recently been
formed out of a portion of the Mmchinabad tahsil^ will have its head-
quarters at the new town of Sadikganj, near the M®Leodganj‘ Road
junction of the mam line and the Ferozepore-M°Leodganj Road
branch of the Southern Punjab Railway. The land revenue and
cesses in 1905-6 amounted to Rs 41,000.

Naigawan Rebai (Natgaon Rebai), — A petty sanad State m
Central India, under the Bundelkhand Agency, with an area of about
7 square miles. Population (1901), 2,497. The jdgirddr is an Ahir
{Daowa) by caste. The land forming the jdgir was originally mcluded
m the Jaitpur State, which lapsed in 1849. After British supremacy
had been established m Bundelkhand, Lachhman Singh, then the
leader of a marauding band, was induced to surrendei on a promise
of pardon , and a grant of five villages, with an estimated revenue of
Rs. 15,000, was made to him m 1807. On his death, in 1808, his son

322

NAIGA WAN REBAI

Jagat Singh succeeded In 1850 it was held that Lachhman Singh’s
tenure was for life only, and that the holding should have been
resumed on his death Jagat Singh was, however, allowed to continue
in possession; and in 1862 this ruling was reversed and the jdgtrddr
received an adoption sanad. The present holder is Larai Dulhaiya,
widow of Jagat Singh, who succeeded in 1867 with the sanction of
Government, though no woman had before held the position of ruling
chief in Bundelkhand. She has an adopted son, Kunwar Vishvanath
Singh, born in 1881, who has been recognized as her successor. The
State contains 4 villages, with a cultivated area of 6 square miles, and
a revenue of Rs. 11,000. The administration is carried on by the
Thakuram herself, assisted by a kdmddr. The head-quarters of the
estate are at Rebai, situated in 25® 21' N and 79° 29^ E, 18 miles
noith of Nowgong cantonment. Population (1901), 757 Until 1834
Naigawan (25° ii' N. and 80° 54' E.) was the chief place. The
change in the head-quarters has given rise to the present name of
the holding,

Naihati. — Town in the Barrackpoie subdivision of the District of
the Twenty-four Parganas, Bengal, situated in 22° 54' N. and 88° 25' E ,
on the east bank of the Hooghly river. Population (1901), 13,604.
Naihati is a station on the Eastern Bengal State Railway and the
junction of a branch railway across the Hooghly Bridge which connects
with the East Indian Railway. An emigration d6p6t is situated in the
town , and at Gauiipur there are large jute and oil-mills. Naihati was
constituted a municipality in 1869. The area within municipal limits
has been greatly curtailed by the separation of the Bhatpara munici-
pality in 1899, and of the Halisahar municipality in 1903. The
income for the five years since its separation from Bhatpara has
averaged Rs. 21,000, and the expenditure Rs 20,000. In 1903-4 the
income was Rs 13,700, including Rs 5,000 derived from a tax on
peisons (or property tax); and the expenditure was Rs. 11,400.

Naini Tal District. — Southern District m the Kumaun Division,
United Provinces, lying between 28° 51' and 29° 37' N. and 78° 43'
and 80° 5' E., with an area of 2,677 square miles. It is bounded
on the north by the Districts of Almora and Garhwal , on the east by
Almora and by NepM territory ; on the west by Garhwal and Bijnor ,
and on the south by Plllbhit, Baieilly, IMoradabad, and the State of
Rampur. About one-sixth of the Distiict lies in the outer ranges

Physical

aspects.

of the Himalayas, the chief of which is known as
Gagar. These rise abruptly from the plains to
a height of 6,000 or 7,000 feet, and are clothed with

forest. The scenery is strikingly beautiful ; and from the tops of the

higher peaks, which reach a height of nearly 9,000 feet, magmficent

views can be obtained of the vast level plain to the south, or of the

TAL DISTRICT 323

mass of the tangled ndges lying north, bounded by the great snowy
range which forms the central axis of the Himalayas Immediately
below the hills stretches a long narrow strip of land called the Bhabar,
in which the mountain torrents sink and are lost, except during the
rains, beneath the boulder formation which they themselves have
made. The Bhabar contains vast forest areas, and is scantily culti-
vated. The remainder of the Distnct is included in the damp moist
plain known as the Tarai and the Kashipur tahfiL On the northern
edge of the Tarai springs appear, which gradually form rivers or small
streams, and give a verdant aspect to the country throughout the year.
Kashipur, m the south-west corner, is less swampy and resembles the
adjoining tracts in Rohilkhand. None of the rivers in the District
uses in the snowy range except the Sard a, which just touches the
eastern boundary. The main drainage lines of the hill country are
those of the Kosi, Gola, and Nandhaur. The Kosi rises in Almora
District, and the Gola and Nandhaur in the southern slopes of the
outer hills. All three livers eventually join the Ramganga, the Gola
being knowm in its lower courses as the Kichha, and the Nandhaur as
the Deoha and later as the Garra. The smaller watercourses of the
Bhabar and the Tarai are innumerable, and change their names eveiy
few miles, but all eventually drain into the Ramganga. In the hills
aie several lakes of some size and consideiable beauty, the chief being
Nairn Tal, Bhim Tal, Malw^ Tal, Sat Tal, Naukuchhiya Tal, and
Khurpa Tal

The Tarai consists of a zone of recently formed Gangetic alluvium,
while the Bhabar is a gently sloping mass of coarse giavels still being
formed from the debris brought down by streams from the hills
A sub-Himalayan zone of low hills, including the Kotah Dun, which
resembles the Siwaliks and the valley of the Nandhaur, contains
deposits of the Upper Tertiary age, chiefly Nahan sandstone. This zone
is separated fiom the Himalayas by a reversed fault. The higher hills
compiise an older set of slates and quartzites; a massive dark dolomite
or limestone ; beds of quartzite and basic lava-flows, and possibly other
schistose and granitic rocks. The steep slopes acted on by heavy rain-
fall have from time to time given way in landslips of considerable size^.

The flora of the District presents a great variety In the Tarai the
ordinary trees and plants of the plains are found. The Bhabar forests
consist to a large extent of sal {Shorea robust d) ; but as the hills are
ascended the flora changes rapidly, and European trees and plants
are seen “

1 Records, Geological Sw^ey of India, vol. xxiii, pts. 1 and iv, and^voh xxiv, pt. n ,
T. H. Holland, Reprt on Geological Structure of HiU Slops near Naim Tal

® For a complete list of plants found, see chap viii, N-W, P Gazetteer, vol, x,
1882

324

NAINI TAL DISTRICT

Owing to the wide range of climate and elevation, most of the
animals of both the plains and hills of Northern India are found in this
District. A few elephants haunt the Bhabar and part of the Tarai,
while tigers and leopards range from the plains to the hills The wolf,
jackal, and wild dog are also found. The Himalayan black bear lives
in the hills, and the sloth bear in both the Bhabar and the Tarai. The
sdmbar or jarau^ spotted deer, swamp deer, hog deer, barking-deer,
four-horned antelope, nilgai^ antelope, and gural also occur. Many
kinds of snakes are found, including immense pythons which some-
times attain a length of 30 feet. The District is also rich in bird life ,
about 450 species have been recorded. Fish are plentiful, and fishing
in the lakes and some of the rivers is regulated by the grant of
licences

The climate of the Tarai and to a lesser extent of the Bhabar is
exceedingly unhealthy, especially from May to November. Few
people, except the Tharus and Boksas, who seem fever-proof, are able
to live there long In the hills the climate is moie temperate, and the
annual range on the higher slopes is from about 26° in January, when
snow falls in most years, to 85® in June.

The rainfall varies as much as the climate. At Kashipur, south
of the Tarai, only 46 inches are received annually ; while at Haldwanl,
in the Bhabar, the average is nearly 77. Naim Tal is still wetter, and
leceives 95 inches annually, including snow

Traditions connect many places in the hills with the story of the
Mahabharata. The earliest historical record is to be found in the visit
Histor Hiuen Tsiang, who descnbes a kingdom of

Govis^a, which was probably in the Tarai and
Bhabar, and a kingdom of Brahmapura in the hills. The Tarai then
appears to have relapsed into jungle, while the hills were included in
the dominion of the Katjurl Rajas, of whom little is known. They
were succeeded by the Chands, who claimed to be SombansI Rajputs
from JhusI in Allahabad District, and first settled south of Almora
and m the Tarai The Musalman historians mention Kumaun in the
fourteenth century, when Gyan Chand proceeded to Delhi and obtained
fiom the Sultan a grant of the Bhabar and Tarai as far as the Ganges.
The lower hills were, however, held by local chiefs, and Kirati Chand
(1488-1503) was the first who ruled the whole of the present Distnct.
When the Mughal empire was established the Musalmans formed
exaggerated ideas of the wealth of the hills, and the governor of the
adjoining tract occupied the Tarai and Bhabar and attempted to
invade the hills, but was foiled by natural difficulties The At 7 i~i-Akbart
mentions a sarkdr of Kumaun, but the mahdh included in it seem to
refer to the submontane tract alone The power of the Chand Rajas
was chiefly confined to the hill tracts, but Baz Bahadur (1638-78)

POPULATION

325

visited Shah Jahan at Delhi, and in 1655 joined the Mughal forces
against Garhwal, and recovered the Tarai. In 1672 he introduced
a poll-tax, the proceeds of which were 1 emitted to Delhi as tribute.
One of his successors, named Debi Chand (1720-6), took part in the
intrigues and conspiracies of the Afghans of Rohilkhand and even
faced the imperial troops, but was defeated. In 1744 All Muhammad,
the Rohilla leader, sent a force into the Chand territory and penetrated
through Bhim Tal in this District to Almoia , but the Rohillas were
ultimately driven out. A reconciliation was subsequently effected ;
troops from the hills fought side by side with the Rohillas at Panipat
in 1761, and the lowlands were in a flourishing state. Internal dissen-
sions followed, and the government of the plains became separated
from that of the hills, part being held by the Nawab of Oudh and part
by Brahmans from the hills. In 1790 the Gurkhas invaded the hill
tracts, and the Chands were driven to the Bhabar and finally expelled.
The Tarai and Kashipur were ceded to the British by the Nawab
of Oudh in 1801 with the rest of Rohilkhand. In 1814 war broke out
between the British and Nepalese, and a force maiched from Kashipur
in February, 1815. Almora fell m two months and Kumaun became
Biitish territory. The later history of the District is a record of
administrative details till 1857. The inhabitants of the hills took no
part in the great Mutiny; but from June there was complete disorder
in the plains, and large hordes of plunderers invaded the Bhabar.
Unrest was spreading to the hills, when martial law was proclaimed by
Sir Henry Ramsay, the Commissioner, and the danger passed. The
rebels from Rohilkhand seized Haldwanl near the foot of the hills , and
attempts were made to reach Naini Tal, but without success By
February, 1858, the rebels were practically cleared out of the Tarai,
and there was no further trouble.

There are considerable areas of rums in the Tarai and Bhabar which
have not been properly explored. Near Kashipur bricks have been
found bearing inscriptions of the third or fourth century a d. The
temple at Bhim Tal, built by Baz Bahadur in the seventeenth century,
IS the chief relic of the Chands

The Distiict contains 7 towns and 1,513 villages. Population
increased considerably between 1872 and 1891, but was then checked
by a series of adverse seasons The numbers at the population
four enumerations were as follows (1872) 263,956,

(i88r) 339,667, (1891) 356,881, and (1901) 311,237 The Tarai and
Bhabar contain a large nomadic population. There are four divisions,
corresponding to the iahsils of Districts in the plains : namely, Naini
Tal, the Bhabar, the Tarai, and Kashipur. The Bhabar is in
charge of a tahsildar stationed at Haldwanl, and the Tarai is under
a iahsildar at Kichha. The principal towns are the municipalities

326 JVJim TAL DISTRICT

of Naini Tal, the District head-quaiters, and KashTpur, and the
‘notified area’ of Haldwani. The following table gives the chief
statistics of population m 1901 —

Area in square
miles

Number of

Population

Population per
square mile

Percentage of
variation in
population be-
tween 1891
and 1901

Number of
persons able to
read and
write.

Towns

Villages

Nainl Tal .

433

451

43.738

lOl

- 52

3,735

Bhabar

1,379

51 »

93,445

- 67

5,138

Kashipiu ,

1 S9

147

5.3,632

294

— 240

2,313

Tarai.

776

•

404

1 18,422

153

- 138

District total

2,677

1,513

311,237

116

— 12.7

12,927

About 75 per cent, of the population are Hindus, and more than
24 per cent. Musalmans , but the latter are chiefly found m the Tarai
and KashTpur. More than 67 per cent, of the total speak Western
Hindi, 31 per cent Central Paharl, and i per cent. Nepali or GorkhalT.

In the hills and Bhabar the majority of the population is divided
into three mam castes — Brahmans, Rajputs, and Dorns. The two
former include the Khas tribes classed respectively as Brahmans and
Rajputs. The Dorns are labourers and aitisans, while the Brahmans
and Rajputs are agriculturists. In the Tarai and KashTpur are found
the ordinary castes of the plains, with a few peculiar to this tract.
Rajputs altogether number 51,300 , Brahmans, 36,000 ; Dorns, 33,000 ,
and Chamars, 23,000. The Tharus and Boksas, who are believed to
be of Mongolian origin, number 16,000 and 4,000 respectively. They
are the only people who can retain their health in the worst parts
of the Tarai In the hills are found three small, but peculiar, castes
the Bhotias, who come from the border of Tibet , the Naiks, who
devote their daughters to prostitution , and the Sauns, who are miners.
Among Musalmans the chief tribes are the Shaikhs (19,000), and
Julahas or weavers (13,000). The Rams (4,000) and the Turks (4,000)
are found only in the submontane tract. Agiiculture supports about
67 per cent of the total population, and general labour 9 per cent.

Out of 659 native Christians in 1901, Methodists numbered 2or,
Roman Catholics 193, Presbyterians 59, and the Anglican communion
38. The American Methodist Episcopal Mission commenced work at
NainT Tal in 1857

In the hill tracts the method of cultivation differs according to the
situation of the land. Plots lying deep in the valleys near the beds
. . of rivers are irrigated by small channels, and produce

a constant succession of wheat and rice. On the
hill-sides land is terraced, and marud^ or some variety of bean or pulse,

AGRICULTURE

327

takes the place of rice in alternate years, while wheat is not grown
continuously unless manure is available. In poorer land barley is
grown instead of wheat. Potatoes are largely cultivated on the natural
slope of hill-sides fiom which oak forest has been cut. Cultivation m
the hills suffers from the fact that a large proportion of the population
migrate to the Bhabar m the wintei. Agricultural conditions in the
Bhabar depend almost entirely on the possibility of canal-irngation,
and the cultivated land is situated near the mouth of a valley in the
hills Rice is grown in the autumn, and in the spring rape or mustard
and wheat are the chief crops. Faither south in the Tarai and in
Kashipur cultivation resembles that of the plains generally. In the
northern portion the soil is light, but when it becomes exhausted,
cultivation shifts. Lower down clay is found, which is continuously
cultivated. Rice is here the chief crop , but in dry seasons other crops
are sown, and the spring harvest becomes more important.

The tenures in the hill tracts have been described m the account
of the Kumaun Division. In the Bhabar the majouty of villages are
managed as Government estates, the tenants being tenants-at-will and
the village managed and the rents collected by a headman. Theie
aie also a few villages under zamlnddn tenures peculiar to the tract, in
which tenants with the khaikari occupancy right of the hills are found
Most of the Tarai is also a Government estate The cultivators, though
mere tenants-at-will, are never dispossessed so long as they pay their
rents In Kashipur the tenures of the plains predominate, but a few
villages are managed as Government estates. The main agncultuial
statistics for 1903-4 are given below, in square miles: —

Tahsil

Total

Cultivated

Irrigated

Cultivable

waste

Nami Tal

433

Bhabar

1,279

32*

Kashipur

189

Tarai

77 ^

195

431

Total

2,677

407

149

557

* In demarcated area only

No crop returns are prepared for the Nairn Tal tahsil^ in which
wheat, barley, rice, and mama are the mam food-crops, while a little
tea and spices are also grown. Rice and wheat are the most important
crops in the Tarai and Kashipur, covering loi and 87 square miles
respectively, or 38 and 33 per cent, of the net area cropped. Gram,
maize, and barley are grown on smaller areas. Oilseeds cover
24 square miles, and a little sugar-cane and cotton are produced.
There are five tea estates in the lower hills, but little tea is now made,
and fruit-growing is becoming a more impoitant industry,

j28

NAINI TAL DISTRICT

The cultivated area in the hill tracts increased by nearly 50 per cent,
between 1872 and 1902 , but agricultural methods have not improved
to any marked extent, except m the extension of irrigation and of
potato cultivation. The cultivated area in the Bhabar has also
increased, but is entirely dependent on canals In the Tarai and
Kashipur cultivation fluctuates considerably according to variations in
the rainfall. Advances under the Land Improvement and Agriculturists’
Loans Acts aie small. They are not required in the hills or in the
Bhabar.

The hill cattle are smaller than those of the plains, but neither
breed is of good quality, though attempts have been made to introduce
better strains. Enoimous herds are brought from the Districts farther
south for pasture during the hot season Ponies of a small, but hardy,
variety are bred in large numbers along the foot of the hills for use as
pack-animals. Goats and sheep are of the ordinary type, and con-
siderable flocks are driven up in the winter from the plains to the
Tarai. In the hills goats aie seldom used to supply milk, but are
kept for their flesh and manure

The total area irrigated m 1903-4 was 1^9 square miles. A few
square miles are irrigated m the hills from channels drawn from the
rivers and carried along hill-sides, besides irrigation from springs and
water near the surface. The greater part of the iirigation in the rest
of the District is fiom small canals. These are drawn in the Bhabar
from the rivers which flow down from the hills, supplemented by lakes
which have been embanked to hold up more water. Owing to the
porous nature of the soil and gravel which make up that area, there is
a great loss of water, and the channels are gradually being lined with
masonry. More than 200 miles of canals have been built, command-
ing an area of iro square miles. In the Tarai the small streams which
rise as springs near the boundary of the Bhabar were formerly dammed
by the people to supply irrigation. Immense swamps were formed and
the tract became extremely unhealthy. Canals and diainage systems
have, however, been undertaken. The canals are chiefly taken from
the small streams and are ‘minor’ works. In the east the villagers
themselves make the dams and channels. The more important canals
are divided between the charges of the Engineer attached to the Tarai
and Bhabar and of the Engineer of the Rohilkhand Canals.

The forests of the District cover an area of about 1,510 square miles,
of which about 900 are ‘reserved’ and 340 consist of ‘protected’
Forests forests. They are situated partly in the submontane
tract and partly in the hills. In the former tract the
most valuable product is sal {Shorea robusta) ; while shlsham {Dalbergia
Stssod)^ haldu {Adtna cordifoha)^ and khair {Acacia Calecbu) are also
found. Sal extends up to about 3,000 feet, and is then replaced by

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS

various pines, especially chir {Ptnus longifohd), and ultimately by
various kmds of oak {Quercus seynecarptfolia^ tncana^ and dilaiatd).
The whole of the waste land m the hill tracts has now been declared
‘protected’ forest to prevent further denudation, which had begun to
threaten the cultivation m the river-beds. Most of the ‘reserved’
forest area is included m the Naini Tal, Kuraaun, and Garhwal forest
divisions, and accounts are not kept separately for the District. The
receipts are, however, large, amounting to 2 or 3 lakhs annually.

The mineral products are various, but have not proved of great
value. Building stone is abundant, and lime is manufactured at
several places. Iron was worked for a time both by Government and
by private enterprise , but none is extracted now. Copper is also to be
found, but IS not worked. A little gold is obtained by washing the
sands of the Dhela and Phika rivers , and other minor products are
alum, gypsum, and sulphur

Cotton cloth of good quality is largely woven in the south-west of
the District, especially at Jaspur, and is dyed or printed locally for
export to the hills. Elsewhere only the coarsest
material is produced for local use. In the hill tracts ^^ TnmiiniV ^?ftnfg
a coarse kind of cloth, sacking, and ropes are woven
from goat’s hair. There are no other industries of importance A
brewery is situated close to Naini Tal, which employs about 50 hands.

The District as a whole imports piece-goods, salt, and metals, while
the chief exports aie agricultural and forest produce. The hill tracts
supply potatoes, chillies, ginger, and forest produce, and import gram
from the Bhabar. The surplus products of the latter tract consist of
gram, forest produce, and rapeseed. There is little trade to or from
the Tarai- A considerable through traffic between the interior of the
Himalayas and the plains is of some importance to this District
Naini Tal is the chief mart in the hills, while Haldwani, Ramnagar,
Chorgallia, and Kaladhungi in the Bhabar, and Jaspur and Kashipur
are the principal markets in the plains.

The only railway is the Rohilkhand-Kumaun line from Bareilly to
Kathgodam at the foot of the hills below Naini Tal, but extensions
are contemplated from Lalkua on this line via Kashipur to Ramnagar,
and from Moradabad on the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway to Kashi-
pur. There are 737 miles of road, of which 173 are metalled and are
in charge of the Public Works department. The cost of the metalled
roads is charged to Provincial revenues, while 226 miles of unmetalled
roads are maintamed by the District board, and 337 by the Tarai and
Bhabar estate funds. The chief road is that from Bareilly through
Kathgodam to Ranikhet and Almora, passing close to Naini Tal.
Another road from Moradabad through Kashipur and Ramnagar
also leads to Ranikhet.

330

NAINI TAL DISTRICT

Famine is practically unknown in the Distiict, though high prices
cause distress among the lowest classes A serious failure of ram in
, the hills has never happened , and although deficiency

Famine. mjures the crops, the hill people depend largely on

the Bhabar, in which irrigation is drawn from permanent sources
The Tarai suffers more from excessive ram than from drought, and
the canal system protects every part of the low country except Kashi-
pur, where scarcity was experienced m 1896

The District is in charge of a Deputy-Commissioner, who is ordinarily
assisted by a member of the Indian Civil Service and by a Dcputj^-
. . . Collector, who are stationed at Nainl Tal. The

Admmistration, forms a subdivision in charge of

another Deputy-Collector, who resides at KashTpur except durmg the
rams. A special superintendent manages the Tarai and Bhabar
Government estates. A tahsllddr is stationed at the head-quarters
of each iahsil except Nairn Tal and Kashipur, where there is a
naib-tahsllddr. In addition to the ordinary District staff, an
Engineer is in chaige of canals and other public woiks m the
Government estates, and the forests are divided between several forest
divisions.

Naim Tal is administered as a non-regulation tract, and the same
officers exercise civil, revenue, and cnminal jurisdiction In civil
matters the Commissioner of Kumaun sits as a High Court, while the
Deputy-Commissioner has powers of a District Judge, and his assistants
and the tahsildars have civil powers for the trial of suits. The Com-
missioner is also Sessions Judge m subordination to the High Court
at Allahabad There is little crime in the hill tracts , but dacoity
is fairly common in the Tarai and Bhabar, and this is the most
serious form of crime The proximity of the State of Rampur favours
the escape of cnmmals,

A District of Nairn Tal was first formed in 1891. Before that date
the hill tracts and the Bhabar had been included in what was then
the Kumaun, but is now called the Almora District. The parganas
included in Kashipur and the Tarai were for long administered as parts
of the adjoining Districts of Moradabad and Bareilly, About 1861,
after many changes, a Tarai District w^as formed, to which in 1870
KashTpur was added The tract ivas at the same time placed under
the Commissioner of Kumaun.

The fiist settlement of the hill tracts and the Bhabar in 1815 was
based on the demands of the Gurkhas and amounted to Rs. 17,000,
the demand being levied by parganas or patfis (a subdivision of the
pargana\ and not by villages, and being collected through headmen.
Short-term settlements were made at vanous dates, in which the revenue
fixed for each patH was distributed over villages by the zamlnddrs

ADMIJSriSTRA TION

331

themselves. The first regular settlement was carried out between 1842
and 1846, and this was for the first time preceded by a partial survey
wheie boundary disputes had occuired, and by the preparation of
a record-of-nghts. The levenue so fixed amounted to Rs. 36,000.
A revision was carried out between 1863 and 1873, but the manage-
ment of the Bhabar had by this time been separated from that of the
hills In the latter a more detailed survey w^'as made. Settlement opera-
tions in the hills differ from those in the plains, as competition rents
are non-existent. The valuation is made by classifying soil, and esti-
mating the produce of each class The revenue fixed in the hill pattls
alone amounted to Rs. 34,900, which was raised to Rs. 50,300 at the
latest assessment made between 1900 and 1902. The latter figure
includes the rent of potato dealings, which are treated as a Government
estate, and also revenue which has been ‘assigned,’ the actual sum
payable to Government being Rs. 43,100 There was foi many years
very little advance in cultivation in the Bhabar, the revenue from which
m 1843 only Rs. 12,700. In 1850 it was placed in chaige of
Captain (afterwards Sir Henry) Ramsay, who was empowered to spend
any surplus above the fixed revenue on improving the estate. The
receipts at once increased by leaps and bounds, as irrigation was
provided and other improvements were made Revenue continued to
be assessed as in the hills in the old settled villages, while the new
cultivation was treated as a Government estate. The first revision in
1864 yielded Rs 60,000, of which Rs. 4,000 repiesented rent, and
the total receipts rose to a lakh in 1869, 1*4 lakhs in 1879, nearly
2 lakhs in 1889, and 2-4 lakhs in 1903. Of the latter figuie, Rs. 57,000
IS assessed as revenue and Rs. 1,85,000 as rent The greater part of
the Tarai is held as a Government estate, and its fiscal history is
extremely complicated, as portions of it were for long administered
as part of the adjacent Districts. The land revenue in 1885 amounted
to Rs. 70,000 and the rental demand to about 2 lakhs. The latter
Item was revised in 1895, when rents were equalized, and the rental
demand is now about 2*5 lakhs Kashipur was settled as part of
Moradabad District, and at the levisions of 1843 and 1879 the revenue
demand was about a lakh. A revision has recently been made. The
total demand for revenue and lent in Nami Tal District is thus
about 7 lakhs. The gross revenue is included in that of the Kumaun
Division.

There are two municipalities, Kashipur and NainI Tal, and
one ‘ notified area,’ HaldwanT, and four towns are administered under
Act XX of 1856. Beyond the limits of these, local affairs are managed
by the District board; but a considerable expenditure on roads,
education, and hospitals is incurred in the Government estates from
Provincial revenues. The District board had in 1903-4 an income

VOL, xviii. y

332

tAl district

of Rs. 37,000 and an expenditure of Rs 82,000, including Rs. 42,000
spent on roads and buildings

The Superintendent of police and a smgle circle inspector aie in
charge of the whole of the Kumaun Division In the hill tract of this
District there are no regular police, except in the town of Naim Tal
and at three outposts, the duties of the police being discharged by the
paiwdrts, who have a higher position than in the plains. There is one
reserve inspector, and the force includes 37 subordinate officers and
135 constables, besides 83 municipal and town police, and 152 rural
and road police. The number of police stations is ii A jail has
recently been built at Haldwanl

The population of Naini Tal District is above the average as re-
gards liteiacy, and 4-2 per cent (7-1 males and o 5 females) could read
and write in 1901 The Musalmans are especially backward, only 2
per cent of these being literate. In 1 880-1 there were only 16 public
schools with 427 pupils, but after the formation of the new District
education was rapidly pushed on, and by 1 900-1 the number of schools
had risen to 60 with 1,326 pupils. In 1903-4 there were 93 public
schools with 2,277 pupils, including 82 giils, besides 13 private schools
with 170 pupils. Only 200 pupils in public and private schools were
in advanced classes. Two schools were managed by Government and
77 by the District and municipal boards The expenditure on educa-
tion was Rs 12,000, provided almost entirely from Local and Provincial
funds. These figures do not include the nine European schools in
Naini Tal Town, which contain about 350 boys and 250 girls.

There are 14 hospitals and dispensaries in the District, with accom-
modation for 104 in-patients. In 1903 the number of cases treated
was 78,000, of whom 1,040 were in-patients, and 1,687 operations were
performed The expenditure amounted to Rs 49,000.

In 1903-4 the number of persons successfully vaccinated was 11,000,
giving an average of 37 per 1,000.

[J E, Goudge, Settlef?ie 7 if Report^ Almof'd a?id Hill Pattis of JVatni
Tdl (1903) , H. R Nevill, District Gazetteer (1904) ]

Naini Tal Tahsil. — A portion of Naim Tal District, United Pro-
vinces, comprising the parganas of Dhyanirao, Chhakhata Pahai,
Pahar Kot^ Dhaniyakot, Ramgarh, Kutaull, and IMahrurl, and lying
between 29° 9' and 29® 37' N. and 79® 9' and 79° 56' E , with an area
of 433 square miles. Population fell from 46,139 in 1891 to 43,738 in
1901. There are 451 villages, but only one town, Naini Tal, which
IS the District head-quarters in the hot season (population, 7,609 in
winter and 15,164 in summer). The demand for land revenue in
1903-4 was Rs. 33,000, and for cesses Rs. 5,000 The density
of population, 10 1 persons per square mile, is higher than in the
Himalayan tracts generally. This tract lies entirely in the hills, and is

NAINI TAL TOJrJ\r

333

under the chaige of a fieskkdr or naib-tahsilddr. In 1903-4 the area
under cultivation was 54 square miles, of which 13 were irrigated either
by small channels from rivers or by canals

Naini Tal Town. — Head-quarters of Naim Tal District, United
Provinces, with cantonment, situated in 29° 24' N and 79® 28'' E., in
a valley of the Gagar range of the Outet Himalayas. Population,
15,164 in September, 1900, and 7,609 m March, 1901, including that
of the small cantonment. Up to 1839 the place was resoited to only
by the herdsmen of sui rounding villages, and though it was mentioned
by the Commissioner in official reports, he does not appear to have
visited it. It was then discovered by a European, and from 1842 it
increased rapidly in size and prosperity At the time of the Mutiny,
Nairn Tal formed a refuge for the fugitives from the neighbouring
Districts in Rohilkhand. Soon afterwards it became the summer
head-quaiters of Government, and it is now also the head-quarters of
the Commissioner of Kumaiin and of a Conservator of Forests In
September, 1880, after three days’ continuous rain, a landslip occurred,
which caused the death of forty-three Europeans and 108 natives,
besides damage to property amounting to about 2 lakhs. Since this
disastrous occurrence a complete system of drainage has been carried
out at great expense. The valley contains a pear-shaped lake, a little
more than two miles in circumference, with a depth of 93 feet. On
the north and south rise steep hill-sides clothed with fine forest trees,
among which oaks predominate On the western bank is situated
a considerable area of more gently sloping land, from which a level
recreation-ground has been excavated. The upper bazar stands above
this, and the houses occupied by the European residents are scattered
about on the sides of the valley. East of the lake the lower bazar is
built on the outer edge of the range. The surface of the lake is 6,350
feet above sea-level; and the highest peaks are China (8,568) on the
north, Deopatha (7,987) on the west, and Ayarpatha (7,461) on the
south. The residence of the Lieutenant-Governor, completed in 1900,
IS a handsome building standing in spacious grounds. The principal
public buildings include the Government Secretariat, the District
offices, the Ramsay Hospital for Europeans, and male and female
dispensaries for natives There is also an important station of the
American Methodist Mission. Nairn Tal has been a municipality
since 1845. During the ten years ending 1901 the income and
expenditure aveiaged lakhs, including loan funds The income in
1903-4 was 1*7 lakhs, including house tax (Rs. 34,000), tolls (Rs. 93,000),
water-rate (Rs. 23,000), and conservancy tax (Rs. 21,000); and the
expenditure was 1*4 lakhs, including repayment of loans and interest
(Rs. 23,000), maintenance of water-supply and drainage (Rs. 34,000),
and conservancy (Rs. 26,000) Drinking-water is derived from springs,

334

NAIJVI TIL TOWN

and is pumped up to reservoirs at the top of hills and distributed by
gravitation. More than 4 lakhs has been spent on water-supply and
drainage, and the introduction of a scheme of electric light is con-
templated, The trade of the town chiefly consists in the supply of
the wants of the summer visitors ^ but there is some through traffic
with the hills. Three schools for natives have 220 pupils, and five
European schools for boys have 350 pupils and four for girls 250

Nainwah. — Town in Bundi State, Rajputana See Naenwa.

Najibabad Tahsil, — Northern tah^ll of Bijnor District, United
Provinces, compnsmg the parganas of Najibabad, Kiratpur, and
Akbarabad, and lying between 29° 25' and 29° 58' N. and 78° 7'
and 78° 31' E., with an area of 396 square miles. Population fell
from 156,873 in 1891 to 153,896 m 1901. There are 422 villages and
two towns. Najibabad (population, 19,568), the head-quarters,

and Kiratpur (15,051). The demand for land revenue in 1903-4
was Rs. 2,75,000, and for cesses Rs. 45,000. The density of popu-
lation, 389 persons per square mile, is much below the Distnct average.
The tahsil contains a considerable area of forest, besides a hilly tract
which is uninhabited The northern portion is scored by torrents,
which aie dry for eight months in the year but scour deep ravines
during the rams Numeious other streams cross the iich alluvial
plain which constitutes the rest of the tahsil^ the chief being the
Malm. The Ganges forms the western boundary. In 1903-4 the
area under cultivation was 188 square miles, of which only 7 were
irrigated. A small private canal from the Malm serves about one
square mile, but nvers are the chief source of supply.

Najibabad Town. — Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same
name in Bijnor District, United Provinces, situated in 29° 37' N.
and 78° 21' E., at the junction of the mam line of the Oudh and
Rohilkhand Railway with the branch to Kotdwara in Garhwal Popu-
lation (1901), 19,568. Najibabad was founded by Najib-ud-daula,
paymaster and for a time Wazir of the Mughal empire, who built
a fort at Patthargarh, a mile to the east, in 1755. In 1772 the town
was sacked by the Marathas, and in 1774 it passed into the hands of
the Nawab of Oudh. Dunng the Mutiny Mahmud, great-grandson
of Najib-ud-daula, revolted, and m 1858, when the place was recovered,
the palace was destroyed. NajIbabM is close to the forest and its
climate is unhealthy, but the town is well drained into the Malm The
principal relic of Rohilla rule is the tomb of Najib-ud-daula ; and a
carved gateway still marks the site of the palace, now occupied by the
tahsili A spacious building called the Mubarak Bunyad, which was
built at the close of the eighteenth century, is used as a resthouse.
The fortress of Patthargarh, also known as Najafgarh, is in rums The
stone used in its construction was taken from an ancient fort, called

NAKtJR TAHSIL

335

Mordhaj, some distance away. NajibabM contains a dispensary and
police station, and a branch of the American Methodist Mission. It
has been administered as a municipality since 1866. During the ten
years ending 1901 the income and expenditure averaged Rs. 15,000
In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 25,000, chiefly from octroi (Rs. 20,000),
and the expenditure was Rs. 28,000. Najibabad is of considerable
importance as a depot for trade with the hills. Metal vessels, cloth,
blankets, shoes, &c., are made here, and exported to Garhwal, while
there is a through trade in salt, sugar, gram, and timber. The town
IS also celebrated for its production of sweetmeats and small baskets,
and in former days its matchlocks were well-known. The tahslll school
has over 220 pupils and an English school about 100 A primary
school and ii aided schools have about 350 pupils.

Nakodar Tahsil. — Western tahsil of Jullundur District, Punjab,
lying on the north bank of the Sutlej, between 30° 56' and 31° 15' N.
and 75° 5' and 75° 37' E., with an area of 371 square miles The
population in 1901 was 222,412, compared with 217,079 in 1891.
The head-quarters are at the town of Nakodar (population, 9,958),
and it also contains 31 1 villages. The land revenue and cesses
in 1903-4 amounted to 4*3 lakhs. The Sutlej forms the southern
boundary of the tahsil. The alluvial lowlands along the right bank
average 7 miles in bieadth. The soil of the uplands above the old
bank of the river is a light loam, and low sand ridges are not
uncommon. The Eastern Bern passes through the tahsil,

Nakodar Town. — Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name,
Jullundur Distiict, Punjab, situated in 31° 8' N and 75° 29' E. Popu-
lation (1901), 9,958. Taking its name from the Nikudari wing or
legion of the Mughals, it became a stronghold of the Sikh chief, Tma
Singh, Ghaiba, and was captured by Ranjit Singh in 1815. The can-
tonment established here after the first Sikh War was abolished in
1854. Nakodar contains two fine tombs dated 1612 and 1637 It
has a considerable trade in agricultural produce, and hiikka tubes and
iron jais are manufactured. The municipality was created in 1867.
The income during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 9,100,
and the expenditure Rs 8,800. In 1903-4 the income was Rs 9,300,
chiefly from octroi, and the expenditure was Rs. 10,100. The towm
has an Anglo -vernacular middle school, maintained by the municipality,
and a Government dispensary.

Nakur Tahsil. — South-western tahsil of Saharanpur District,
United Provinces, lying between 29° 39' and 30® 10' N. and
77® 7' and 77° 34' E. It comprises four parganas — Sultanpur,
Sarsawa, Naktir, and Gangoh — which all lie on the east bank of
the Jumna. The total area is 428 square miles, of which 306 were
cultivated m 1903-4. The population rose from 192,657 in 1891 to

33 ^ NAKUR TAHSlL

203,494 in 1901. Theie are 394 villages and eight towns, including
Gangoh (population, 12,971), Ambahta (5,751), and Nakur (5,030),
the head-quarters. In 19 03 -4 the demand for land revenue was
Rs. 3,29,000, and for cesses Rs. 55,000. About one-third of the
tahsil lies m the Jumna khadar. The eastern portion is irrigated by
the Eastern Jumna Canal, which supplied 24 square miles in 1903-4,
while 60 square miles were irrigated from w^ells.

Nakur Town. — Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name in
Saharanpur District, United Provinces, situated m 29° 56' N. and
77° 18'' E Population (1901), 5,030, Hindus and Musalmans being
about equally divided. Nakur is said to have been founded by
Nakula, one of the Pandavas, fiom whom its name is derived. The
town suffered much m the Mutiny and was burnt by a party of Gujars ,
but a relieving force recovered part of the plunder. There is a fine
Jain temple, and also a tahsill school, a dispensary, and a sarai^ all
well built. Nakur is administered under Act XX of 1856, and taxa-
tion yields about Rs. 1,100 a yeai. The site is raised and well
drained. There is very little trade.

Nal. — A large lake in the Bombay Presidency, about 37 miles
south-west of Ahmadabad, lying betw^een 22° 43' and 22° 50' N.
and 71® 59' and 72° 6' E It was at one time part of an arm of the
sea which separated Kathiaw^ar from the mainland, and it still covers
an area of 49 squaie miles Its water, at all times brackish, growls
more saline as the dry season advances, till at the close of the hot
season it has become nearly salt The bordeis of the lake are fringed
wuth reeds and other rank vegetation, affording cover to innumerable
wuld-fowl of every desciiption. In the bed are many small islands,
much used as grazing grounds for cattle during the hot season

Nala. — Estate in Khandesh District, Bombay. See Mehwas
Estates.

Nalagarh (also called Hindur). — One of the Simla Hill States,
Punjab, lying between 30° 54' and 31° 14' N. and 76° 39' and
76® 56' E, with an area of 256 square miles Population (1901),
52,55 r. The country w’as overrun by the Gurkhas for some years
prior to 1815, when they were driven out by the British, and the
Raja was confirmed m possession. The present Raja is Isri Singh,
a Rajput. The revenue is about Rs. 1,30,000, of which Rs 5,000
IS paid as tribute. The principal products aie w^heat, barley, maize,
and poppy.

Nalapani. — Village in Dehra Dun District, United Provinces. See
Kalanga.

Nalbari. — Village m the Gauhati subdivision of Ramrup Distnct,
Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 26° 27' N and gi° 26' E.
Population (1901), 1,312. The village contains a maiket in which

NALGONDA DISTRICT

337

country produce of all sorts is procurable. The public buildings
include a dispensary and an English middle school. Nalbari suffered
severely from the earthquake of 1897, which altered the waterways
and rendered it impossible for boats to come up the Chaulkhoa from
IBaipeta in the rams — a route that was formerly open. Efforts are now
being made to bring one of the rivers back into its former channel
]\Iost of the trade is in the hands of Marwari mei chants known as
Kayahs. The principal imports are cotton piece-goods, grain and
pulse, kerosene and other oils, salt, and bell-metal ; the chief exports
are rice, mustard, jute, hides, and silk cloths.

Nalchiti. — Town in the head-quarters subdivision of Backergunge
Distiict, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated m 22° 39' N. and
90° 18' E., on the river of the same name. Population (1901), 2,240.
Nalchiti was formerly an important trading town, exporting betel-
nuts direct to Arakan and Pegu, and is still a busy mart on the
mam steamer route between Baiisal and Calcutta. The chief exports
are rice and betel-nuts ; and the chief imports are salt, tobacco, oil,
and sugar, Nalchiti was constituted a municipality in 1875.
income during the decade ending 1 901-2 averaged Rs 2,270, and the
expenditure Rs. 2,100. In 1903-4 the income was Rs 3,150, mainly
derived from a property tax , and the expenditure was Rs. 3,100.

Naldrug District. — Former name of Osmanabad District,
Hydeiabad State.

Naldnig Taluk. — A tdhik formeily in the south of Osmanabad
Distiict, Hyderabad State, amalgamated vith the Tuljapur taluk m
1905. The population in 1901, mchidmg jdgirs, was 56,335, and the
area was 370 squaie miles, while the land revenue was i 3 lakhs.

Naldrug Village. — Village in the Tuljapur taluk of Osmanabad
District, Hyderabad State, situated in 17° 49' N. and 76° 29' E.
Population (1901), 4,111 The fort of Naldrug is situated above the
ravine of the Bon river, and is one of the best fortified and most pictur-
esque places in the Deccan. Before the Muhammadan invasion in
the fourteenth century, it belonged to a local Raja, probably a vassal of
the Chalukyas. It fell to the Bahmani dynasty, who built the stone
fortifications. After the division of the Bahmani kingdom m 1482, it
was seized by the Adil Shahis of Bijapur, and was a bone of contention
between them and the Ahmadnagai Sultans. Ali Adil Shah in 1558
not only added to the fortifications, but erected a dam across the
Bon, which afforded a constant supply of water to the garrison

Nalgonda District. — District m the Medak Gulshanabad Division,
Hyderabad State, lying between 16® 20' and 17° 47' N. and 78® 45' and
79° 55' E., with an area of 4,143 square miles, including jagirs^.

^ The dimensions lelale to the District as it stood up to 1905 The changes made
then are described below under Population.

33 S

NALGONDA DISTRICT

The Hyderabad Districts of Warangal, Karimnagar, Mahbubnagar, and
Atraf-i-balda bound it on the east, north, and west On the south it
IS separated from the Guntur District of the Madras Presidency by
the Kistna river, A range of hills runs through the taluks of Nalgonda
and Devarkonda, and enters the Amrabad ^ViO-tdluk
aspects south of Mahbubnagar Distnct. Another

range of low hills starts in the south-west of the
District and extends from the vicinity of the Dandi nver in a north-
eastern direction as far as Warangal District. A third range, known
as the Nalla Pahad, after reaching the Dandi and the Peddavagu,
bifurcates, one spur extending north, the other joining the second
range. A fourth range, in the north-west of the Distnct, runs from
the west of Pasnur in a north-westerly direction as far as Surikonda,
and then taking a sudden turn towards the east extends for 12 miles
and turns again due north, passing between Narayanpur and Ibrahim-
patan, curving again towards Vemalkonda. This range lies almost
wholly in the Distnct, its total length being about 60 miles. Besides
these there are nearly a hundred isolated hills, some of which are
situated in one or other of the ranges mentioned. The general
slope of the District is from west and north-west towards the south-
east.

The most important river is the Kistna, which forms the southern
boundary. It first touches the District at Yellaisharam in the Devar-
konda idluk and has fifteen fords, one in Devarkonda and fourteen in
Devalpalli taluk, served by boats or coracles. Its length in the District
is 53 miles. The Musi, a tributary of the Kistna, enters the District
from the north-west, and flows due east for a distance of 40 miles ;
but after its junction with the Aler river, it flows in a south-easterly
direction till it falls into the Kistna near Wazirabad, after a course in
the Distnct of 95 miles. The other rivers are the Peddavagu and the
Dandi in the Devarkonda taluk The Hallia river, which rises in the
hills west of N^ayanpur in the Nalgonda taluk, flows m a south-
easterly direction for about 45 miles, when it is joined by the Kongal
river near the village of Kongal, and continuing in the same direction
falls into the Kistna. Its total length is 82 miles.

The District is occupied by Archaean gneiss, except along the banks
of the Kistna, where the rocks belong to Cuddapah and Kurnool
series ^ The famous Golconda diamonds were formerly obtained from
the Cuddapahs and Kurnools, particularly the basement beds of the
latter.

The jungles and hilly portions of the Distnct contain the common
^Trees met with everywhere, such as teak, ebony, eppa {Hardwickia
hinata), 7 ialldmaddt {Ter?mnalia tomentosa), sandra {Acacia Catechu),
* W. King, Memoirs, Geolo^cal Swvey of India, \ol. mix, pt 1.

POPULATION

339

babul {Acacia arabica)^ mango, tamarind, tarvar {Cassia auriculafa)^
and various species of Picus

In the jungly portions of Devarkonda and Devalpalli and parts of
BhongTr and Suriapet, tigers, leopards, cheetahs, bears, hyenas, and
wolves, as well as sdmbar^ spotted deer, antelope, and hares, are found.
Among birds, peafowl, partridges, quail, rock pigeon, and jungle-fowl
are abundant.

The District is malarious from August to October, and healthy
fiom November to the end of May. It is very hot during April
and May, the temperature rising to iio°. In August and Septem-
ber the moist heat is very oppressive. The average rainfall for the
twenty-one years ending 1901 was 26 inches

The District was part of the dominions of the Warangal Rajas,
one of whose governors built Pangal, 2 miles north-east of the town of
Nalgonda, and made it his head-quarters, afterwards History
removing to Nalgonda. That place was conquered
during the reign of Ahmad Shah Wall, the Bahmani king. After the
dissolution of the Bahmani power, the District became part of the
Kutb Shahi kingdom of Golconda, and though it had been occupied
for a time by the Raja of Warangal, it was eventually retaken by Sultan
Kuli Kutb Shah. After the fall of Golconda, the District was annexed
with the other Deccan Subaks by Aurangzeb, but it was separated from
the Delhi empire on the foundation of the Hyderabad State m the
beginning of the eighteenth century.

There are several places of archaeological interest in the District,
the chief among them being the forts of Nalgonda, Devarkonda^
Orlakonda in the Snriapet tdluk^ and BhongIr. The fort of Devar-
konda is sui rounded by seven hills, and was at one time considered
a formidable stronghold, but is now in rums. The temples at Pangal
in the Nalgonda tdluk^ at Nagalpad in Devalpalli, and at Palalmari in
Suriapet, are fine specimens of Hindu religious architecture.

The number of towns and villages in the District, including
is 974. The population at the three enumerations w^as . (1881)
494,190, (1891) 624,617, and (1901) 699,799. The p
towns are Nalgonda and BhongIr. About 95 per ^
cent, of the population are Hindus, and as many as 91 per cent,
speak Telugu. The table on the next page shows the distribution
of population m 1901.

In 1905 Cherial and Kodar were transferred to this District from
Warangal, the latter sub-/iz/w>^ being made a taluk and its name changed
to Pochamcherla. The District in its present form thus consists of
the following seven taluks, Nalgonda, Cherial, Suriapet, Pocham-
cherla, Minalguda (Devalpalli), Devarkonda, and BhongTr.

The most numerous caste is that of the agricultural Kapus, who

Population.

340

NALGONDA DISTRICT

number 125,500, or 18 per cent of the population, the most important
classes among them being the Kunbis (82,800) and Mutrasis (33,100)
Next come the Madigas or leather-workers (95,500), the Dhangars
or shepherds (71,700), the Mahars or village menials (57,200), the
Brahmans (31,400), the, Salas or weavers (28,900), the Komatis or
trading caste (26,600), and the Ausalas or smiths (22,300). The
Madigas and Mahars work as agricultural labourers, and most of
the Dhangars are engaged in agiicultme as well as grazing. The
population engaged in, and supported by, agiiculture numbers more
than 250,000, or 36 per cent of the total

Taluk

Area in square
miles

Number of

Population

Population per
square mile

Percentage of
variation in
population be
tueen 1S91
and 1901

Number of
persons able to
read and
write

Villages

Nalgonda .

762

190

i 3 i>S 36

573

- 5 I

Sunapet

644

182

166,586

258

+ 184

Devalpalli

749

150

76,904

103

- 99

Devarkonda

662

152

85 ) 37 ®

129

+ 168

Bhongir

4^4

73.031

161

+ 346

Jaglrs^ &c.

872

206

166,052

190

+ 109

Distnct total

4 ii 43

972

699,779

168

+ 120

I 3)®38

There is an Ameiican mission at Nalgonda, having a church, a
mission school, and a hospital, with a competent staff of native Christian
teachers for the school, and a lady doctor in charge of the hospital
The mission has two branches, one at Devarkonda and the other at
Mirialguda. In 1901 the District contained 1,212 native Chnstians, of
whom 429 were Roman Catholics, 225 Methodists, and 235 Baptists
The converts are mostly from the lower castes

The entire District is situated in the granitic region, hence most of
its soils are derived from the decomposition of granite and are gener-
A nculture sandy, such as chalka and ?iiasal). In the Deval-

palli taluk the soil near the Kistna is alluvial, and
also consists to a large extent of regar or black cotton soil. Both
these varieties are utilized foi raising ?al)i ciops. Regar is found in
the other taluks to a smaller extent, but \Mth an admixture of sand
The kharlf crops raised on the chalka and masab soils are jowdr^
bdjra^ cotton, kulihi^ and castor-oil seed.

The tenure of lands is mainly ryotwdri Khdha and ‘ crown ’ lands
coveied a total area of 3,271 square miles in 1901, of which 1,525
were cultivated, 874 cultivable waste and fallows, 574 forests, and
298 were not available for cultivation. Jowdr and bdjra form the
staple food-crops, being giown on 17 and 22 per cent of the net area
cropped Rice is next in importance, the area under it being 138

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS

341

square miles. Cotton is produced on ii^ squaie miles, and castor-oil
seed on 386 square miles.

The District has not yet been settled, but the revenue survey has
been completed The total cultivated area increased from 1,187 square
miles in 1891 to 1,525 m 1901, or by 41 per cent. No steps have been
taken to improve the cultivation by importing new vaneties of seed
or introducing bettei agricultuial implements.

A special breed of cattle is found in the Devarkonda tdluk^ generally
black or red in coloui, very sturdy and well suited for agricultural
work. The animals are supposed to be descended from the Mysore
breed, and are well-known beyond the fi on tier, a large number being
acquired by purchasers from British teriitory. The white cattle bred
m the Suriapet and Devalpalh taluks are handsome animals. In other
parts the cattle are of the ordinary strain Goats are largely bred in
the Devarkonda, Devalpalh, and Suriapet taluks^ as the large extent of
jungle and hill tracts provides plenty of grazing, while in the Nalgonda
and Bhongir taluks sheep are moie commonly kept The ponies are
of a very inferior class.

The area irrigated in 1901 was 229 square miles, supplied by
352 large tanks, i,iio kunias or small tanks, 12,456 wells, and
208 other sources. The principal channels are those from the riveis
Musi, Aler, Peddavagu, and other minor streams, which supply some
of the chief tanks, as well as provide direct irrigation

There are small forest aieas in all the taluks^ amounting to a total
of 574 square miles, of which 190 squaie miles are ‘protected ’ In the
hilly jungles boideiing on the Kistna river in the Devalpalh and
Devarkonda taluks^ large tracts are coveied with eppa (Ha^-dwickta
bmatd) and sandra {Acaaa Catechii), No forest is ‘reserved,’ but
17 species of timber trees have been reserved w^herever found The
revenue obtained from the sale of fuel, charcoal, and foiest produce
in 1901 was Rs. 2,750.

In the Devalpalh taluk laminated limestone resembling the Shah-
abad stone is found, w^hich is used for building purposes and also burnt
for making lime Slate is also found in the same taluk. Gold was
discovered at Chitrial in the same tdluky and worked for a time, but
the yield was so small that the mine was given up At Nandkonda
and the neighbouring villages on the left bank of the Kistna diamonds
aie said to be found

At Charlapalli and Pangal in the Nalgonda taluk silk cloth scarves
and saris of various patterns and colours are made, which are very
durable and are largely used by the better classes.

The Salas or weavers also manufacture ordinal y conm^ic^kins

coarse cotton cloth and saris for the use of the

ryots. Light earthen vessels, such as goblets and drinking cups of

342

NALGONDA DISTRICT

a fine quality, are made at BhongTr, and are exported to Hydeiabad
and adjoinmg Districts. To the east of the town of Nalgonda
there is a tannery where leather of a superior quality is prepared.
The number of hands employed m 1901 was 30.

The chief exports consist of castor-seed, cotton, tarvar bark, hides
and skins, both raw and prepared, bones and horns, rice, jowdr^ and
bdjra , while the imports are salt, opium, silver and gold, copper and
brass, iron, refined sugar, kerosene oil, raw silk, yarn, and silken,
woollen, and cotton fabrics. The chief centres of trade are the towns
of Nalgonda and Bhongir. Articles for export from the northern
portions of the District find their way to Bhongir and Aler stations
on the Nizam’s Guaranteed State Railway, and those from the
southern portions are sent direct by the old Masulipatam road
to Hyderabad. The number of carts that pass through the town of
Nalgonda varies between 200 per diem in the slack season to 700
in busy times.

The Nizam’s Guaranteed State Railway traverses the Bhongir taluk
from west-south-west to east-north-east for a distance of 21 miles, and
has five stations in the District.

The principal road is that from Hyderabad to Masulipatam, which
was constructed by the Madras Sappers and Miners m 1832 for
military purposes. Its length in the District as far as Gum pal m the
Sunapet taluk is 71 miles The road from Hyderabad to Madras
branches off at the sixty-seventh mile, near Nakrekal, and terminates
at Wazirabad near the Kistna, its length in the District being 40 miles.
This road was also made about the same time as the former, and by
the same agency. About 21 miles of the Hyderabad-Warangal road
lie in the District. Other roads are railway feeders, such as the
Nalgonda-Bhongir road, 44 miles; the Khammamett station feeder
road, 18 miles; Nalgonda to Devarkonda, 36 miles; to Tipparti,
12 miles, and to Nakrekal, 14 miles. The last three w'ere made
during the famine of 1877-8.

In 1790 a great famine affected the District, and grain was sold at
one rupee a seer. Another famine in 1877 caused severe distress
Famine among the poor. Gram was sold at 4 seers a rupee,
and the District lost more than 34,000 head of cattle.
The famine of 1899-1900 was not so severe as that of 1877, but its
effects lasted for nearly two years.

The District is divided into three subdivisions : one consisting
of the taluks of Bhongir and Chenal, under a Second Talukdar ;

Administration.

the second consisting of the taluks of Mirialguda
(Devalpalli) and Devarkonda, under a Third

Talukdar; and the third consisting of the taluks of Nalgonda,

Sunapet, and Pochamcherla (Kodar), under the head-quarters Third

ADMINISTRA TION

343

Talukdar, The First Talukdar exercises a general supervision over
the work of all his subordinates Each taluk is under a iahstldd 7 \

The District civil court is presided over by the First Talukdar with
a Madadgdr or Judicial Assistant for both civil and criminal work,
there being no Ndzim-t-Dlwdni. There are altogether ten subordinate
civil courts, three piesided over by the Second and Third Talukdais,
and seven by the tahsllddrs. The First Talukdar is the chief
magistrate of the District and his Assistant is also a joint-magistiate,
who exeicises powers in the absence of the First Talukdar from head-
quarters. The Second and Third Talukdars and the tahsllddrs have
magisterial powers of the second and third class. Serious crime is
not heavy, dacoities, theft, and house-breaking being the common
offences in ordinary years.

Little is known of the early history of land revenue. Up to 1821
an anchanaddr (estimator) was appointed to every ten villages, who
estimated the standing crops and submitted his estimates to the dmils.
On ‘ wet ’ lands irrigated by tanks, and ^ dry ' lands, the State and the
ryot had equal shares, but on ‘vret’ lands supplied by channels and
wells the ryot’s share was three-fifths and three-fourths respectively.
In 1821 ztladdrs (revenue managers) were appointed, who entered
into an agreement for a period of ten years with patels or village
headmen to pay annually a sum equal to the average receipts of the
previous ten years. In 1835 groups of villages were made over to
zammddrs on the sarbasta or contract system, which continued to the
time of Messrs. Dighton and Azam Ali Khan, the revenue managers or
ztladdrs in 1840. Five years later this was changed in certain tdluks
and the revenue was collected departmentally, partly in kind and
partly in cash. The sarhasia or contract system was completely
abolished on the formation of regular Districts in 1866, when rates
of assessment were fixed per bigha (f acre). The revenue survey of
the whole District has not yet been completed. The tdluks of
Nalgonda and Devalpalli have very recently been settled, the increase
in their revenue being nearly Rs. 46,200, or more than 16 per cent.
The average assessment on ‘dry’ land is Rs 1-14 (maximum Rs.
2-12, minimum Rs. 1-4), and on ‘wet’ land Rs. 15 (maximum
Rs. 18, minimum Rs ii)

The land revenue and total revenue in recent years are given below,
in thousands of rupees . —

i88i.

1891

1901.

1903

Land revenue .

Total revenue .

8,20

12,99

10,93

16,83

IL97

22,49

13.38

22,22

Owing to changes in area effected in 1905, the revenue demand
is now about 14 *6 lakhs.

344

NALGONDA DISTRICT

In 1902, after the settlement of the two taluks of Nalgonda and
Devalpalli, a cess of one anna m the rupee was levied foi local
purposes, and boards were formed for every taluk except Nalgonda,
with the tahsildm^s as chairmen A District board was also constituted,
with the First Talukdar as president. Piior to the formation of these
boards and the levying of the one anna cess, the municipal expenditure
of the town of Nalgonda and of all the head-quarters of taluks was met
from State funds, amounting to Rs. 2,844 in 1901. The District
boaid supervises the work of the municipahty of Nalgonda.

The First Talukdar is the head of the police, with a Superintendent
{Mohtamiin) as his executive deputy. Under him are 6 inspectors,
92 subordinate officers, 589 constables, and 25 mounted police
These are distiibuted among 39 thdnas or police stations and 39 out-
posts. The rural police number 666, besides 1,098 sefsmdls or village
watchmen. Short-term prisoners are kept in the District jail at
Nalgonda, those with terms exceeding six months being sent to the
Central jail at Warangal. Since the recent changes, they have been
transferred to the Central jail at Nizamabad.

The District occupies a low position as regards the literacy of its
population, of whom only 1*9 per cent (3*2 males and 0*3 females)
were able to read and write in 1901. The total number of pupils
under instruction in 1881, 1891, 1901, and 1903 was 242, 1,097, 1,316,
and 1,472 respectively In 1903 there were 29 pnmary and 2 middle
schools, with 84 girls under instruction The total expenditure in
X901 was Rs. 8,800, all of which was paid by the State. Of this,
Rs. 8,336 was spent on State schools and Rs. 468 granted to the
aided schools The fee receipts for the State schools amounted to
Rs. 603, and of the aided schools to Rs. 430

Theie w^ere 3 dispensaries in the District in 1901, with accommo-
dation for 12 in-patients The total number of out-patients treated
was 24,739 in-patients 157, and 551 operations were per-

formed The expenditure amounted to Rs. 10,074 The number of
persons successfully vaccinated was 1,81 1, or 2-6 per 1,000 of the
population

Nalgonda Taluk. — Taluk in Nalgonda District, Hyderabad State,
with an area of 874 square miles. Including the population in
1901 was 151,133, compared with 159,225 in 1891, the decrease being
due to transfer of certain villages. The taluk contains one town,
Nalgonda (population, 5,889), the District and taluk head-quarters,
and 216 villages, of which 26 are jdglr. The land revenue m 1901
was 3 5 lakhs. The soils are sandy, and irrigation by tanks and
channels is extensively resorted to for rice cultivation.

Nalgonda Town. — Head-quarters of the District and taluk of
the same name, Hyderabad State, situated in 17° 3' N and 79° 16' E.,

NALLAMALAIS

345

between two hills. Population (1901), 5,889. On the northern hill
stands Shah Latif’s tomb, and on the southern is a strong fortress
surrounded with masonry wall The town was formerly named Nllgiri
by its Rajput rulers, but its present name was given after its conquest
by Ala-ud-dm Bahman Shah. Nalgonda contains a spacious sarat
built by IMir Alam, a Hindu temple, a travellers’ bungalow, and a busy
market called Osmanganj, the usual offices, a post office, a dispensary,
a District jail, a middle school with 256 boys, and a girls’ school.
A British post office is situated in Nakrekal, 1 2 miles from Nalgonda.
There is also a tanneiy, 2 miles distant from the town.

Nalhati. — Village in the Rampur Hat subdivision of Birbhum
District, Bengal, situated in 24° 18' N. and 87° 50' E., on the East
Indian Railway, 145 miles from Calcutta. Population (1901), 2,636.
Nalhati is said to have been the capital of a traditional Hindu
monarch. Raja Nala, and traces of the ruins of his palace are
pointed out on a hillock called Nalhati Zila, close to the village.
Another legend connects the name with a temple to Nalateswarl,
and It IS here that the nala or thioat of the goddess Sati is said
to have fallen The AzTmganj branch of the East Indian Railway
joins the loop-lme at Nalhati, and it is an important centie of the
nee trade.

Nalia. — Petty State in Rewa Kantha, Bombay

Nalitabari. — Village in the Jamalpur subdivision of Mymensingh
District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 25° 5' N. and
90° 13' E., about 13 miles north-east of Sherpur. Population (1901),
620 It IS one of the most important marts in the north of the
Distiict, and a large quantity of cotton produced in the Gaxo Hills
is brought to market here, as well as all kinds of country produce.

Naliya. — Town m the State of Cutch, Bombay, situated in
23° 18' N. and 68° 54'' E. Population (1901), 6,080. This is one
of the most thriving towns m Cutch. It is walled and well built,
and has a class of prosperous traders, being the residence of retired
merchants who have made their foi tunes in Bombay or Zanzibar,
It contains a dispensary.

Nallamalais (‘ Black Hills ’). — The name locally given to a section
of the Eastern Ghats which lies chiefly in the three westernmost
taluks of Kurnool District, Madras, between 14° 26' and 16° o' N.
and 78° 39' and 79° 23' E The range runs nearly north and south
for 90 miles from the Kistna river (which flows among its northern-
most spurs in a deep and wildly picturesque channel) to the Penner
in Cuddapah District, and averages from 1,500 to 2,000 feet in eleva-
tion. The highest points in it are Bhairani Konda (3,048 feet), just
north-west of Cumbum, and Gundla Brahmeswara (2,964 feet), due
west of that place, Down the slopes of the latter runs a torrent,

346 NALLAMALAIS

which ends in a beautiful waterfall descending into a sacred pool
called Nemaligundam (‘peacock pool’). Many other peaks of the
range are between 2,000 and 3,000 feet above the sea. Geologically,
the rocks of which it is composed belong to what is known as the
Cuddapah system, a series some 20,000 feet in thickness They
consist of quartzites (and some sandstone), overlaid with slaty forma-
tions which are unfortunately too irregular in cleavage and soft in
texture to be of economic value. The exact stratigraphy of these
rocks was little understood for many years, owing to the difficulty
of geological research in a country which was for the most part
overgrown with forest and ill supplied with roads, but Dr. King
of the Geological Survey eventually unravelled the tangle A striking
feature of the system is the foldings into which the rocks were forced
by a period of great strain and stress acting from the east. In
some places immense thicknesses have been thrust over westward
and completely mveited

The Nallamalais contain several plateaux, and more than one
attempt has been made by Europeans to settle upon them, but,
though they are healthy for much of the year, the great scarcity
of water and the prevalence of fever after the rams in June will
probably always render them undesirable places of residence. The
low plateau of SrIsailam was inhabited m the days of old, and the
remains of ancient towns, forts, temples, reservoirs, and wells testify
to the prosperity of the residents. At present the only people who
live upon the range are the forest tube of the Chenchus, who dwell
in small clusters of huts dotted about it They used to subsist largely
on fees paid them by the adjoining villagers for guarding the foot-
paths and tracks across the hills. After the present police force was
organized these fees were less regularly paid , and the tribe now
lives by breeding cattle and sheep, collecting honey and other products
of the jungle, or serving as watchmen in the forest

Practically the whole range is covered with unbroken forest, but
except in places on the western slopes, wheie there is some sand-
stone, little of this is really dense or large. The annual rainfall
is usually less than 40 inches, and the rocks are so deeply fissured
that much of it runs away as soon as it falls. There is thus too
little moisture for the growth of large tiees. The characteristic of
the timber on the range is its hardness. Tenmnalia^ Hardwickia^
Fterocarpus^ and Anogezssus are the commonest species. Teak has
been planted but did not flourish. Now that the railway from
Guntakal to Bezwada crosses the range, great quantities of timber,
firewood, and bamboos are carried by it to the neighbouring Districts.

The railway runs along the pass known as the Nandikanama, or
‘bull pass,’ which is so called from a temple to Siva’s bull Nandi

naalika^al Toirw

built neai a theimal ^pnng not far fiom its western extiemit}. It
is a consideiahle engineenng woik, seveial long tunnels and high
viaducts being necessaiy. It follows the line taken by the chief
of the two cart-roads ovei the range, the route connecting Kurnool
District with the coast, which is i8 miles m length and rises to about
2,000 feet above the sea The other road, which goes by way of
the Mantralamma or Dormal pass farther north, is much less important

Naltigiri. — Spur of the Assia lange m the head-quarters subdivision
of Cuttack Distiict, Bengal, situated m 20® 35' N. and 86° 15'' E.,
on the south of the Birupa river. The hill has two peaks of unequal
height, with a pass between. It is famous for its Buddhist remains,
some of which are in a fair state of preservation.

Namakkal Subdivision. — Subdivision of Salem District, Madras,
consisting of the Namakkxl and Tiruchengodu taluks.

Namakkal Taluk. — Taluk in Salem District, Madras, lying
between 11° i' and ri° 25' N. and 77° 51' and 78° 30' E., with
an area of 715 square miles It is the most southerly taluk of the
District and lies lovvei than the others, foiming a wide plain broken
on the north and east by the great range of the KollaiiMALAIS.
The Cauvery skiits it and encircles a small tract of country, which,
with Its flouiishing gioves of plantains, betel-vmes, and coco-nut palms,
its sugai-cane and gieen expanses of iice, rivals in richness the delta
of Tanjore. The population in 1901 was 313,895, compaied with
300,047 in 1891. Theie aie 356 villages and two towns, Namakkat.
(population, 6,843) Sendamvngauam (13,584). The demand foi
land levenue and cesses in 1903-4 was Rs. 4,47,000.

Namakkal Town. — Head-quaitcis of the subdivision and taluk
of the same name in Salem Distiict, Madras, situated in 11° 14' N.
and 78° 10' E , on the Salem-Tiichinopoly road, 31 miles fiom Salem
city, and 20 miles from the nearest railway station, Karur on the South
Indian Railway. Population (1901), 6,843 The town is famous for
Its temple of Namagiii Amman built at the base of the Namakkal
rock — a gieat lounded mass of gneiss about 200 feet high, crowned
by a hill fort Msible for miles round, and easily distinguished fiom
the suiiounding hills by its white colour, llie battlements arc still
m perfect pieseivation, being made of well-cut blocks of the same
stone as the hill itself, and secured to the rock by moitar. No moitai
has been used in the higher couises, which hold together solely by
then own weight and accuiate fitting. Besides the fort, a Hindu
temple and a Muhammadan flagstaff stand on the top of the rock.
The building of the for ti ess is ascribed by some to Ramachandia
Naik, poligdr of Sendamangalam, and by others to Lakshmmarasayya,
an ofiflcei under the Mysore Raja, It is peihaps less than 200 yeais
old, and was captured by the English in 1768, only to be lost again

VOL. XVIII. 7 >

348

NAMAKKAL TOJri\

to Haidai All a few months later At the foot of the rock on the
other side lie the drinking-water tank called the Kamalalayam, and a
public garden. The town possesses a high school, the only Local fund
institution of that class in the District. Ghi of an excellent quality is
brought to the Namakkal market and exported to distant places.

Namhkai (Burmese, Nanke). — Petty State in the Myelat divi-
sion of the Southern Shan States, Burma, lying between 20° 10' and
20® 20' N. and 96° 33^ and 96° 54' E., with an area of 75 square miles.
It is bounded on the north by Loi-ai, the Hsihkip dependency of
Yawnghwe, and Loimaw ; on the east by Yawnghwe , and on the south
and west by Loilong The greater part of the State consists of giassy
downs, but to the west, towards Loilong, it breaks up into hilly country.
The population in 1901 was 6,780, distributed in 76 \illages, nearly the
whole being Taungthus The Ngwegunhmu, who resides at Paw-in
(population, 259), is himself a Taungthu. The levenue in 1904--5
amounted to Rs 5,000, and the tribute to the British Government is
Rs 3,000.

Namhkok (Buimese, Na 7 ikok) — State in the central division of
the Southern Shan States, Burma, lying between 20° 33' and 20^47' N-
and 97° ii' and 97® 21'' E., with an area of 106 square miles It is
bounded on the north by Hopong , on the east by Mongpawn , on the
south by Nawngwawn, and on the west by Yawnghwe, fiom which it
IS separated by the Tamhpak river. From the Tamhpak valley the
ground rises to a considerable height in the east on the Mongpawn
border Rice is grown both on the low-lying lands and in tmmgyas
on the hill-slopes. Other crops are vegetables of various kinds, indigo,
and thariatpet. The population of the State in 1901 was 6,687,
tiibuted in 78 villages Shans and Taungthus are represented in
about equal propoitions. The Myoza’s head-quarters are at Namhkok
(population, 383), m the valley of one of the eastern tributaiies of
the Nam Tamhpak The revenue in 1903-4 amounted to Rs 8,800
(mainly thatha 7 nedd) , and the chief items of expenditure weie Rs 4,500
tribute to the British Government, Rs 2,400 spent on officials’ salaiies,
&c., and Rs 1,100 credited to the privy purse

Nam Mao. — River of Upper Burma See Shweli

Nammekon. — One of the Karenni States, Buima

Namtok (Buimese, Nantoh)—K very small State in the M>elat
division of the Southern Shan States, Burma, lying in 20° N and
97® E., in the Nam Pilu valley, enclosed between Samka, Loilong, and
Sakoi, with an area of 20 square miles. The population in 1901 was
778 (in 12 villages), all Shan-speakmg The only village of any size
is Namtok (population, 235), the residence of the Ngwegunhmu, lying
on the Pilu. The revenue in 1904-5 amounted to Rs. 1,000, and
the tribute to the Biitish Government is Rs. 500

nAxder ni strict

349

Nam Til, — Rivei m the Northern Shan States, Burma. See Myitnge.

Nancowry Harbour, — The best harbour in the Nicobar Islands.
See Nicobars.

Nanda Devi. — The highest mountain in British India, situated
in 30° 23' N. and 79° 58' E , in the District and tahsil of Almora,
United Provinces. The elevation above sea-level is 25,661 feet. The
peak is a pyramid of grey lock coated with ice, and its sides rise at an
angle of about 70° above the surrounding snow-clad mountains The
Hindus regard the clouds of snow blown off the summit by the wind as
smoke from the kitchen of the goddess Nanda

Nandana. — Place of historical interest in the Pind Dadan Khan
tahsil of Jhelum District, Punjab, situated in 32° 43' N. and 73° 17' E.,
14 miles west of Choa Saidan Shah, in a remarkable dip in the outer
Salt Range Near by are extensive lemams of a temple, a fort, and
a large village The temple is in the Kashmiri style, but faces west,
instead of east, as temples of that style usually do Of the fort, two
bastions of large well-cut sandstone blocks still remain. Nandana is
mentioned as the objective of one of Mahmud of Ghazni’s expedi-
tions in 1014. Early m the thirteenth century it was held by
Kamr-ud-dln Karmani, who was dispossessed by a general of Jalal-
ud-dln, Sultan of Kbwanzm. The latter was defeated on the Indus
in T22I by Chingiz Khan, one of whose officers, Turti, the Mongol,
took Nandana and put its inhabitants to the swoid. It appears in
the list of places conquered by Altamsh, who entrusted it to one of
his nobles In 1247 his son Mahmud Shah dispatched an army to
ravage the hills of Jud and the country round Nandana, to punish a
Rana who had guided a Mongol inroad m the previous year.

Nandasa. — Petty State in Mahi Kantha, Bombay.

Nander District. — District in the Aurangabad Division, in the
north of the State of Hyderabad, lying between 18° 28' and 19° 31'' N,
and 77° 4' and 78° 6' E , with an area of 3,349 square miles It is
separated from the Berar District of Basim by the Penganga, and is
bounded on the east by Nizamabad, on the south by Bidar, and on the
north and west by Parbhani. A range of hills, known
as the Bhag or Thanavari, runs through the District
from north-west to south-east between Parbhani
and Nizamabad. There are minor ranges in the Nander, Kandahar,
Osmannagar, and Bhaisa taluks.

The most important river is the Godavari, which enters from the west,
and, flowing past Nander in the centre of the District in an easterly
direction, passes out into Nizamabad. The Manjra, its largest tribu-
tary, joins the Godavari on the right at Manjra Sangam (confluence),

’ These limits relate to the area of the District before the changes made in 1905
see paragraph on Population

Physical

aspects.

350

A'^ANnER njSTRICT

5 miles east of Kondalwadi The Penganga forms the not them
boundaiy of the District, flowing in an easterly direction. Othei
riveis are the Ashna, a tributary of the Godavari, flowing east and
falling into it on the left bank, about 2 miles from Nander town ; the
Siddha in the Nander and Bhaisa tdhiks^ also a tributary of the
Godavari; the Lendi in Deglur, and the Manar in Deglur and
Kandahar

The geological foiinations aie the Archaean gnei&s and the Deccan
trap, occupying respectively the east and west of the District

The District contains teak, mahud (Bassia laiifolia)^ khmr (Acacia
Catechu)^ tamarind, mango, eppa (Hardwickm ntm^ and various

species of Ficus.

The only tdlnk in which any large game is regulaily found is
Hadgaon, where tigers, leopards, bears, wild dogs, hyenas, hog, wolves,
sdinbar^ barking-deer, and spotted deer aie met with , also paitiidges,
quail, peafowl, green pigeons, and duck.

With the exception of the Biloli tdhik^ which is compaialively damp,
the District is dry and health3\ In Nandei and Kandahai the tem-
peratuie in May rises to 112®, while Hadgaon, Osinannagar, and
Deglur are cooler, the temperature being about 100° in May. In
December it falls to 60° The average lainfall for twenty-one yeais,
i88i-'I9oi, was 36 inches.

The District formed pait of the Chalukyan and Yada\a kingdoms,
and Nander is supposed to be the old Nanagin fort of the eaily
Kakatlyas In the beginning of the fouiteenth
century it was conquered by Ala-ud-din KhiljT It
formed pait of the Bahmam and subsequently of the Kutb Shahi
kingdom The tract was annexed to the Mughal empire aftei the
conquest of the Deccan by Aurangzeb, but was separated fiom it on the
foundation of the Hyderabad State in the beginning of the eighteenth
century.

There are several tombs of Musalman saints at Kandahar and Nan-
der, and the fort at the latter place is old. Nander also contains the
Gurddwdra of the Deccan Sikhs, where Guiu Govind is buried Two
old mosques at Nandei weie built, one by Malik Ambai and the othei
during the reign of the Kutb Shahis The fort of Kandahar is popu-
larly supposed to have been erected m the fourth centuiy by Somadeva,
a Raja of Kandahar, and it may perhaps be connected with Krishna III,
the Rashtrakuta of Malkhed, who is styled lord of Kandharapura It
is sunounded by a ditch and a strong stone uall Deglur contains
an old temple of Ganda Maharaj, and Bhaisa another built after
the Hemadpanti style

The number of towns and villages m the Distiict is 1,174, including
paigdh and jdglrs. Its population at the last three enumerations was :

AGRICULTURE

351

(1881) 636,023, (1891) 632,522, and (1901) 503,684. The famine of
1899-1900 accounts foi the decrease of population in the last decade.
The towns are Nander, Bhaisa, Deglur, and Muk-
KHER Nander is the head-quarteis of the District.

About 89 pel cent of the population aie Hindus and 10 pei cent.
Musalmans. More than 70 per cent, speak Marathi and 14 per cent.
Telugu. The following table shows the distribution of population in
1901 • —

Taluk

Area in square
miles

Number of

% ^

H 1 >

Population

Population per
square mile

Peicentage of
variation in
population be-
tween 1 801
and 1901

Number of
persons able to
read and
write

Osmannagai

258

30^377

I18 — 2:.T

Hadgaon

419

141

43,602

104 — 4T.S

Bhaisa

217

39,100

iSo - iS 3

Biloh

198

33 .ii 7 o

171 - 23

- 3

1 Deglur .

207

103

49,324

238 - 2.5

Kandahar

.®;53

153

78,546

142 — 240

Nander .

632

250

92,479

146 — 22 2

^ '

Jagirs, &c

805

275

136,186

162 — 19*0

District total

. 3,349

1,170

503,684

150 - 20.4

11,001 1

In 1905 the Mudhol taluk, and a fe\^ villages from Baiiswada, were
transfeired from Nizamabad to this Distiict, while Bhaisa was absorbed
in Mudhol, and Osmannagai was divided between Biloli and Kan-
dahai The northern villages of the Nander taluk were made over
to Kalamnuri in Parbham District, and other portions were added
to Hadgaon and Mudhol. The District in its piesent foim thus com-
prises SIX taluks — Hadgaon, Mudhol, Biloli, Deglur, Kandahai, and
Nander — besides a large paigdJi estate and a jdgir

The purely agricultuial castes number 171,600, or about 34 pei
cent., the most important among them being Maratha Kunbls or Kapus
(129,700) and Kolis (15,500). Next come the trading castes, num-
bering 48,600, of whom 34,900 are Yarns and 11,600 Komatis. Lower
castes include Dhangars or shepherds (45,000), Mahars or village
menials (36,700), and Mangs or leather-workers (33,000). The
last two castes work as field-labourers also There are only 10,200
Brahmans m the District More than 65 per cent, of the population
are dependent on the land. The District contained only 9 Christians
in 1901, of whom one was a native

With the exception of the soils of the Kandahar taluk, the entire
District IS composed of black cotton soil or regar. Portions of the
Kandahai, Nandei, and Bhaisa taluks aie slightly ^ riculture
hilly, but othei paits are fiat, ^\ith veiy gentle undula-
tions. Rabi Cl ops arc extensively laised, consisting of jowdr, gram.

352 NANDER district

peas, wheat, and oilseeds , while the kharif crops include yellow and
Berar jowar^ hajra^ linseed, cotton, maize, and other food-giains.

The tenure is mainly ryoiwdrL In 1901 khdlsa lands measured
2,544 square miles, of which 1,967 were cultivated, 202 were occupied
by cultivable waste and fallows, 310 by forests, and 65 were not avail-
able for cultivation. The staple food-crop is jowdr, grown on
52 per cent of the net aiea cropped Next in importance is cotton
(449 square miles) , the other food-grams, such as bdjra, tuar^ and
pulses, covei 190 square miles, oilseeds 99, and wheat 82 square miles.

Although no special breed of cattle is found, those reared in the
District are sturdy and well suited for ploughing the heavy regar. Sheep
of the ordinary kind are bred. The milch goats are of a good type, and
fetch as much as Rs. 8 per head. Before the closing of the Malegaon
horse and cattle fair in Bidar District, owing to plague (1896), pdtels^
pdtivdris^ and well-to-do ryots used to rear numbers of ponies. The
State has provided Arab stallions in all the tdhiks for the improve-
ment of the breed of horses

The principal source of irrigation is wells, which number 5,764. In
addition, 169 tanks, large and small, and 163 other sources, such
as anicuts and channels, are used. All these are in good working
order, and iriigate 46 square miles.

The forest area is very limited, only no square miles being ‘reserved,’
and 200 square miles unprotected. The forests contain teak (Tectona
grandis), mahiia {Bassia iahfohd)^ ebony {Diospyros ??hi(Vioj.yIo/:)^
khair (Acacia Catechu), eppa (Hardwickta binatd)^ and tamarind
Bhaisa, Hadgaon, and Nander aie the only taluks m which any forest
areas exist

Good basalt and granite are found in the vicinity of Nandei, and
limestone m the Deglur, Bhaisa, and Kandahar tdhiks

Nander town is famous for its fine muslins, which compare with those
of Dacca. The muslin, though produced in small quantities now, is
exported It is much piized at Hyderabad, fetching
commimiMtions. pnces, especially the kind used for turbans, and
the handkerchiefs and saris adorned with gold and
silver thread like Benares work. Ordinary cotton cloth is also woven
and is used by the poorer classes In the Deglur and Bhaisa tdhiks
coarse cloth is printed foi screens and table-cloths There is a small
factory at Nandei for gold and silver thread, Coaise papei is made in
Mujahidpet, and copper and brass vessels aie turned out at Mukkher.
There were three cotton-presses and three ginning factories in the
Distnct in 1901, employing 450 hands An impetus has been given to
this industry since the opening of the Hyderabad- Godavari Valley Rail-
way in 1900, and four more factories are m course of construction.

The chief exports consist of cotton, linseed, oils, joivdr, cloth

ADMINIS TRA TION

353

and muslin, indigo, and food-grains The principal imports aie cotton
and woollen goods, law silk, silver and gold, rice, refined sugar, kerosene
oil, opium, copper and biass sheets and vessels The greater portion of
the trade is with the adjoining Districts \ but cotton, linseed, and indigo
are sent to Bombay, and ghl^ oils, and gram to Hyderabad Internal
tiade is mostly in the hands of the Vanis, Komatis, and Momins, but
Bhatias and Kachchis fiom Bombay are engaged in export trade The
opening of the Hyderabad-Godavari Valley Railway in 1900 has
diverted the chief channels of trade, which formerly passed through
Hyderabad and Akola.

The Hyderabad-Godavaii Valley Railway tiaverses the Distiict from
east to west for 40 miles, with six stations.

The Distiict contains 141 miles of fair-weather roads. One starts
fiom Nander, and passing through Osmannagar and Kandahar reaches
Deglur (50 miles) The others are from Deglur to Bidar (12 miles),
Nander to Hingoli (12 miles), to Malakoli (25 miles), to Deglur
(12 miles), and to Nirmal (30 miles). On the Godavari and Manjra,
large coiacles and rafts are kept to transport people from one bank to
the other.

No reliable records exist of early famines In 1819 a great scarcity
is said to have occurred in this and the neighbouring districts, known
as Gdjarkdl In 1897 there was scarcity, and people famine
had not recovered from its effects when the gieat
famine of 1899-1900 occurred. All the wells and streams dried up,
and there was not a drop of water m the Godavari. The rainfall in
1899 was only 15 inches, less than half the normal quantity. The
kharlf and rabi crops were one-fourth and one-sixteenth of the noimal.
Notwithstanding an expenditure exceeding 2J lakhs, thousands died,
and the Census of 1901 show^ed a decrease of 128,845 persons, wdiile
about 22 per cent of the cattle were lost.

The District is divided into three subdivisions, one compiising the

taluks of Nander and Kandabai, the second Deglur and Biloli, and

the thud Mudhol and Hadgaon. Each of the last

, . , rr. , 1 1 11 1 Administration,

tivo IS under a Second falukdar, while the lust is

undei the Thud Talukdai, the First Talukdai having a general supei

vision over the woik of all his subordinates. Each taluk is under a

tahsilddr^ but the Nander tdhtk has a naib (deputy) tahsllddr as well.

The Distiict civil court is presided over by a Civil Judge, styled the
Ndzim-t-Dlwdni^ while three subordinate civil courts are under Munsifs.
The First Talukdai is the chief magistrate, and the District Civil Judge
IS also a joint-magistratc, w^ho exercises magisterial powders during the
absence of the First Talukdar from head-quarters. The tw^o Second
Talukdai s, as. a special case, exercise fiist-class powers and the Third
Talukdar second-class powers wathin their respective subdivisions, while

Administration.

354

NANDER DISTRICT

the taMldari> have thnd-clasb powers In ordinai> times serious crime
is not heavy, but ad\erse seasons cause an increase in dacoities and
cattle-thefts.

Prior to the intioduction of District administration assessments weie
made on holdings, and levcnue was collected eithei in cash oi kind
In 1866 payment in kind was commuted to cash payments, and the
ryotwdn system was intioduced. In 1880 a lOUgh suivey w^as made,
and in 1889 the District was legulail) settled foi a peiiod of fifteen
years, the rates being similar to those of Auiangabad and Bhlr Dis-
tricts and in Beiai The settlement incieased the levenue b)' 39*7 pci
cent., while the survey showed that the aieas of holdings had been
understated by 46 per cent. The av^erage assessment on ‘di} ’ land
is Rs 1-13-6 (maximum Rs. 3-0, minimum R. 0-3), and on ‘w^ct’
land Rs. 9 (maximum Rs. 10, minimum Rs. 6) In double-ci opped
lands the assessment for the second ciop is half that foi the fiist The
lates given above foi ‘wet’ lands aie for the dbi crop, but foi the tdhi
Cl op the maximum is Rs 20 and the minimum Rs. 15.

The land levenue and the total revenue foi a senes of yeais are
show'll below', in thousands of rupees —

“ (

1881 1

i8t)i

1901

1903 1

Laud rcN einie 1

' 3.(58 ;

J 3,37

^ 3,47

i I

Total leveniie '

' 5 , 8 o

15,86

16, oS ,

Owing to changes of aiea made m 1905, the land icvenuc demand
now IS about 15 lakhs

In 1899 a cess of one anna m the uipce w'as levied on the land
levenue, and local boards weie constituted Of the total cess one
fouith, 01 Rs 20,600, IS set apart foi municipal and local w'oiks. The
Fust Talukdai is the president of the District boaid, and the fa/mlddrs
are the chaiimen of the tdluk boards, except wheie theie is a Second
Talukdar, who takes the chan at the head-quaiteis of his subdivision.
There is a municipality at Nander, and each of the head-quarters of
the tdlicks has a small conservancy establishment, the Distnet and taluk
boaids managing the municipalities as well. The local board expendi-
ture m 1901 was Rs. 16,000.

The First Talukdar is the head of the police, with the Supeimtendent
{Moktamim) as his executive deputy. Under him are 8 inspectois,
74 subordinate officeis, 483 constables, and 25 mounted police, distri-
buted in 29 fhdnas and 36 outposts. There is a District jail at Nander,
and small lock-ups aie maintained in the outlying iahstl offices. Short-
teim prisoners only are kept in the District jail, those whose sentences
exceed six months being sent to the Cential jail at Auiangabad.

In 1901 the pioportion of peisons able to lead and wiite was 1.2 pei

xAxdea^ Toir.y

355

cent (4 2 males and 0-03 females), so that the Distiicl takes a medium
place in the State as regaids the literacy of its population. The total
number of pupils under instruction in 1881, 1891, 1901, and 1903 was
95 ^) 2,346, and 2,905 lespectively In 1903 there were 68 pnmar>
and 3 middle schools, with 155 girls under instiuction. The total
amount spent on education in 1901 was Rs. 16,000, of which Rs. 10,300
was contiibuted by the State, and the remainder by the boaids. The
total leceipts fiom fees amounted to Rs 810.

The District contains two hospitals, with accommodation for 6 in-
patients The total numbei of out-patients tteated during 1901 was
20,160, and of in-patients 73, while 348 opeiations were peifoimed
The total expendituie was Rs. 6,516, which was met by the State 'The
numbei of persons successfully vaccinated in 1901 was 860, 01 1*71 pei
1,000 of population

Nander Taluk. — U'estein fd/u/c of Nandei District, Hyderabad
State, with an aiea of 695 square miles The population in 1901,
including jdghs, was 102,015, compared with 131,040 in 1891, the
decrease being due to the famine of 1900. Till recently the taluk
contained one town, Nanjjer (population, 14,184), the head-quarters of
the District and tdiuk^ and 276 villages, of which 26 are jaglr The
Godavari flows south of Nander from west to east. The land revenue
for 1901 was 2 9 lakhs The soils are chiefly alluvial and regar In
J905 portions of this taluk >vere transferred to KalamnCiri, Hadgaon,
and Mudhol

Nander Town, — Hcad-quarteis of the Dislucl and taluk ofNandci,
Hyderabad State, situated in 19° 9' N. and 77°2o''E, on the left
or noith bank of the Godavari, 174 miles fiom Hyderabad and 147
from Aurangabad. Population (1901), 14,184, of whom 653 aic Sikhs
Nandei was the capital of Telingana in the time of Sliah Jahan. The
town contains the offices of the Fust Talukdai, a talisil office, and Sadr
Munsif and Munsifs courts, police offices, two dispensaries, one ol
which is for tieatmeiit after the Yufidni system, five schools, a State
post office, and a British sub-post office. A weekly bazar is held, where
a large business is done in cattle, grain, and cotton. Nander is noted
for its fine muslin and gold-bordered scarfs, used as turbans and sd 7 ns
In fineness the muslin resembles that of Dacca. On the banks of the
Godavari and adjoming the town is an old fort, now used as a jail, which
IS said to have been built by the Raja of Kalam There are several
Hmdu temples and two old mosques, besides a sarai built by Mir Alam
and the shrines of several Musalman saints. Guru Govind was
murdered here by an Afghan in the reign of Shah Alam Bahadur, and
his shiine 01 Gurudwdm is visited by Sikhs from all parts of India.
Nandci station on the Hydciabad-Godavau Valley Railway is situated
about a mile noith of the town.

356

NANDGAD

Nandgad {Na^idigad ). — Village in the Khanapui tdluka of Belgaum
District, Bombay, situated in 15° 34' N and 74° 35' E., 23 miles south
of Belgaum town. Population (1901), 6,257 Nandgad is an impoi-
tant trade centre The chief imports aie areca-nuts, coco-nuts, coco-nut
oil, dates, and salt, bought from native Christian traders of Goa, while
wheat and other grains are exported The place contains a wealthy
population of Brahmans and Lingayat tradeis, and has an unenviable
leputation for litigation and lawlessness Not far from the village is the
mined fort of Pratapgarh, built by Malla Sarya Desai of Kittur in 1809
On Shamsheigarh, i| miles west of the village, is a temple of Tateshwai
ascribed to Jakhanacharya. The place contains three schools for boys
and one for girls

Nandgaon State. — Feudatory State in the Central Provinces,
lying between 20° 50' and 21° 22' N. and 80° 26' and 81° 13' E.,

with an area of 871 square miles. The main area of the State,

compiised in the Nandgaon and Dongargaon parganas^ is situated
between Chanda and Drug Distiicts to the south of Khairagarh,
but the three detached blocks of Pandadeh, Patta, and Mohgaon
he to the north of this, being separated from it by portions of the
Khaiiagarh and Chhuikhadan States and by Drug District. The
capital is situated at Raj-Nandgaon, a station on the Bengal-Nagpur
Railway. The Patta and Pandadeh tracts contain high hills and
dense forests, and Dongargaon to the south of them is composed
mainly of broken ground with low peaks covered with a growth of
scrub jungle Towards the east, however, the parganas of Nand-
gaon and Mohgaon he in an open black soil plain of very great

fertility The Seonath river flows through the southern portion of

the State, and the Bagh skiits it on the west The ruling family
are Bairagis by caste, and as celibacy is one of the obseivances of
this ordei, the succession devolved until lately on the chela 01 dis-
ciple adopted by the mahant 01 devotee The fust mahanf^ wlio
came from the Punjab, staited a money-lending business in Ratan-
pui towards the end of the eighteenth centuiy with the countenance
of the Maratha governor BimbajI Bhonsla. His successois acquired
the parganas of Pandadeh and Nandgaon from the former Gond
and Muhammadan landholders, in satisfaction of loans. Mohgaon
was conferred on the fifth mahant by the Raja of Nagpur with the
status of zamlnddr\ and Dongargaon was part of the territory of
a zamlndar who rebelled against the Bhonslas, and whose estate
was divided between the chiefs of Nandgaon and Khairagarh as a
rewaid foi ciushing the levolt. Nandgaon became a Feudatory
State m 1865. Ghasi Das, the seventh mahant from the founder,
was mairied and had a son, and in 1879 the Government of India
mfoimed him that his son would be allowed to succeed This son.

N and G AON ^TATE

357

the late Raja Bahadur Mahant Balram Das, succeeded his father
as a minor m 1883, and was installed in 1891, on the understand-
ing that he would conduct the administration with the advice of
a Dlwan appointed by Government He was distinguished by his
munificent contributions to objects of public utility, among which
may be mentioned the Raipur and Raj-Nandgaon water- works. He
received the title of Raja Bahadur in 1893, and died in 1897, leaving
an adopted son Rajendra Das, four years old, who has been recog-
nized as the successor During his minority the State is being man-
aged by Government, its administration being controlled by a Political
Agent under the supervision of the Commissioner, Chhattisgaih Divi-
sion In 1901 the population was 126,365, showing a decrease of
31 per cent in the previous decade, during which the State was
very severely affected by famine. The State contains one towm,
Raj-Nandgaon, and 515 inhabited villages, and the density of
population is 145 persons per square mile. Telis, Gonds, Ahirs or
Rawats, and Chamars are the principal castes The majority of the
population belong to Chhattlsgarh, and, except for a few thousand
Marathas, the Chhattlsgarh! dialect is the universal speech.

The greater part of the cultivated land consists of rich dark soil.
In 1904 nearly 550 square miles, 01 63 per cent of the total area,
were occupied for cultivation, of which 512 w^ere under crop. The
cropped area has decreased in recent years owing to the unfavoui-
able seasons Rice covers 36 per cent of the cultivated area, kodon
36I per cent, wheat 13 per cent., and linseed 4 per cent Nearly
500 tanks have been constructed for iriigation, which supply water
to more than 3,000 acres of iice land, wdiile 500 acies on which
vegetables are grown aie irrigated from w^ells About 14 1 squaie miles,
01 a sixth of the total aiea, are foiest Valuable timber is scarce,
the forests being mainly composed of infeiior species Harrd {Ter-
mifiaha Chebtild) glows in abundance, and theie are large areas of
bamboo foiest m the Patta tiact. Limestone and iron ores exist,
but are not worked at present. Brass vessels and ornaments aie
made at Raj-Nandgaon This town also contains the Bengal-Nagpur
Spinning and Weaving Mills, which were erected by Raja Balram
Das and subsequently sold to a Calcutta firm A new' ginning factory
is under construction. The Bengal-Nagpur Railway passes through
the State, with stations at Raj-Nandgaon and Muripar. There are
148 miles of gravelled and 10 miles of embanked roads. The prin-
cipal routes aie the great eastern road from Nagpur to Raipur, the
Raj-Nandgaon-Khairagarh, Raj-Nandgaon-Bljatola, and Raj-Nandgaon-
Ghupsal loads The bulk of the trade goes to Raj-N^dgaon station,
w’hich also leceives the pioduce of the adjoining tracts of Raipui

The total levenue in 1904 w’as Rs. 3,49,000, the principal heads

358

NANIIGAON STATE

of receipt being land revenue and cesses (Rs 2,45,000), forests and
excise (Rs. 20,000 each), and income tax (Rs. 18,000). The State
has been cadastrally surveyed, and the system of land revenue
assessment follows that presciibed for Biitish Districts of the Cen-
tral Provinces. A levised settlement was concluded in 1903, and
the incidence of land levenue amounts to about 10 annas per acre.
The village headmen have no pioprietaiy rights, but leceive a pro-
portion of the ‘ assets ' of the village The total expenditure in
1904 was Rs. 2,63,000 The oidinary tiibute paid to Government
IS at present Rs 70,000, but is liable to periodical revision. 0 th ei
Items of expenditure weie — allowances to tlie ruling family (Rs. 12,000),
general admmistiation (Rs. 83,000), public works (Rs. 28,000), and
loans and lepayment of debt (Rs. 57,000) Since 1894 about 4^
lakhs has been expended on public works, under the supeiinten-
dence of the Engineei of the Chhattisgarh States division. The
State supports 30 schools, including one English middle, one ver-
nacular middle, and one girls’ school, with a total of 2,571 pupils.
In 1904 the expenditure on education was Rs. 9,900. At the Census
of 1901 the number of persons letmned as hteiate was 2,151, the
proportion of males able to read and write bemg 3 4 per cent A
dispensary is maintained at Raj-Nandgaon, at which 17,000 patients
Mere treated in 1904.

Nandgaon Taluka. — South-easternmost taiuka of Nasik Disliict,
Bombay, lying between 20° 9' and 2o°3i'N. and 74® 2 7' and 74^^ 56' E.,
with an aiea of 435 square miles It contains one town, Nandgaon
(population, 6,271), the head-quaiters ; and 88 villages The population
in 1901 was 37,691, compared with 33,652 in 1891 It is the most
thinly populated tdhika in the District, with a density of only 87
persons pei squaie mile. The demand foi land ie\enue in 1903-4
was Rs 8 1,000, and for cesses Rs. 5,000 The north and west arc
rich and lei el, but the south and east are funowx‘d by lavines and
deep stream beds. The eastern half is thickly covered with a?ijan
trees , the w^estern half is open, with a sparse growth of bushes The
climate is dry and healthy , and the water-supply is abundant, the
chief rivers being the Panjan and Maniad.

Nandgaon Town.— Head-quarters of the tdhika of the same name
in Nasik District, Bombay, situated in 20° 19' N. and 74° 42' E.,
about 60 miles north-east of Nasik town, on the north-eastern line
of the Great Indian Peninsula Raihvay. Population (1901), 6,271.
The town contains a cotton-ginning factory, an English school, and
a dispensary.

Nandi. — Village m the Chik-Ballapui taluk of Kolar District, My-
soie, situated in 13° 23' N and 77° 42' E, at the north-east base
of Ncindidioog, 5 miles south of Chik-Ballapur. Population (1901),

NANDIGAniA TALUK

359

1,315 The temple of Ehoga NandTs\aia dates at least fioni the*
C'hola period, the beginning of the cle\enth centuiy, but in the
courtyard is a Pallava insciiption 200 yeais older. A British military
station was established here from 1799 1808. The soil around

is very fertile. Excellent potatoes and sugar used to be produced,
with all kinds of European and other fruits and vegetables. A large
annual fair is held at the Sivaratri, when the best bullocks reared
in the country are brought foi sale West of the village is a small
hill, with ‘ Haidar’s Drop,’ over which condemned prisoners were thrown
East of the village is the mosque mentioned in Meadows Taylor’s
novel Tippoo Sullaiin^ the opening scenes of which are laid at Nandi

Nandial.— Subdivision, tdluk^ and town in Kumool District, Madias.
See Nandyal.

Nandidroog. — Famous fortified hill, 4,851 feet high, in the west
of Kolar District, Mysore, situated in 13® 22' N and 77° 41' E.
It IS the highest point in the east of the State, and lies at the
termination of a range of hills running north to Penukonda and
the Bellaiy District of Madias. On the top is an extensive plateau
sloping to the west, in the centie of 'which is a laige hollow con-
taining a wood, and a tank called the Amrita-sai ovaia or Make of
nectar,’ faced on the four sides with stone steps. Except on the
west, where it is partially united with the adjoining range, the hill
presents a nearly perpendicular locky face, being in fact an almost
insulated monolithic mass of granite. The Palar nvei has its leputed
source at the top, in a well on the east, and the Arkavati m a well
on the west. The lower <^ides of the hill aie clothed with foiest.
From the second to the eleventh centuiy it was the stronghold of
the Ganga kings, who were Jains, and bore the title ‘ Lord of Nanda-
giri’ After the Chola conquest at the beginning of the eleventh
century the name was changed to Nandigiri, the ‘hill of Nandi,’
the bull of Siva. The hill was probably first fortified by the Chik-
Ballapur chiefs, but the existing extensive works weie erected by
Haidar All and Tipii Sultan, subsequent to its seizure by the Mara-
thas in 1770 A precipitous cliff at the south-west angle is pointed
out as ‘Tipu’s Drop,’ being the place over which piisoners are said
to have been huiled by the ordeis of that ruler. The captuie of
Nandidroog by the British under Lord Coinw^allis in 1791 w^as a
memorable feat. Duung the British occupation of Mysoie, the salu-
brity of the spot led to its becoming a hot-season resort foi Euiopean
officials from Bangalore On the site of an old tower or fort at the
highest point was erected a large house, which w^as long the favourite
retreat of Sir Mark Cubbon.

Nandigama Taluk. — Taluk m the west of Kistna District, Madras,
lying between 16° 36' and 17° 3' N. and 80° and 80® 32' E., with an

360

NANDIGAMA TALUK

area of 677 square miles It includes the two detached zaminddm of
Munagala and Lingagiri within the Nizam’s Dominions. The popula-
tion in 1901 was 139,958, compared with 126,701 in 1891. The
demand on account of land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to
Rs. 3,28,000. It contains one town, Jaggayyapeta (population, 8,432),
and 169 villages, and the head-quarters are at the village after which
it is named. The Muneru, with its tributary the Vareru, and the
Palleru flow from the north through the taluk into the Kistna

Nandikeshwar. — Village in the Badami tdluka of Bijapur District,
Bombay, situated in 15° 57' N. and 75° 49' E., 3 miles east of Badami
town. Population (1901), 1,127. is of interest as containing
Mahakuta, the site of numerous temples and lingams. The enclosure
in which the Mahakuta temples lie is reached by a steep flight of stone
steps, at the foot of which is a doorway guarded by door-keepers said
to be figures of the demons Vatapi and Ilval. The enclosure, which is
bounded by a stone wall, is small, but contains numerous temples m
various styles, chiefly Chalukyan and Dra vidian, many lin^ams, and some
snake-stones In the middle of the enclosure is a pond called Vishnu
Pushkarni Trrth, said to have been constructed by the sage Agastya.
In the masonry margin of the pond is a Imgam shnne, the entrance to
which is under water, and in the pond is a chhatri containing a fom-
faced image of Brahma. According to legend the daughter of Devdas,
king of Benares, was bom with the face of a monkey, and her father
was directed in a dream to take her to bathe 111 the Mahakuta pond.
He brought her and built the temple of Mahakuteshwar and some
smaller shrines of Mudi Mallikarjun and Virupaksheshwar, all con-
taining lingams , and his daughter was cured. To the north-east of
the entrance is a shrine of Lajja Gauri, or ^ Modest Gauri,’ a well-carved
black-stone figure of a naked headless woman lying on her back. The
story goes that while Devi and Siva were sporting in a pond a devotee
came to pay his respects. Siva fled into the shrine and Parvati hid
her head under the water and stayed where she was. The figure is
worshipped by barren women Outside the enclosure is a pond called
Papavinashi, or * Sin-Destroyer,’ said to have been built by a seer in
the first or krita epoch, the water having been produced by the sweat
of Mahadeo. A car with large stone wheels stands just outside the
enclosure. The Mahakuteshwar temple has six inscriptions on pillars.
One, dated in the reign of the Western Chalukya king Vijayaditya
(696-733), records a gift by a harlot , anothei, dated 934 Saka, records
a grant by Bappuvaras, a chief of Katak ; and the third records the
gift of a pillar as a votive offering.

Nandikotkur, — Northern subdivision and taluk of Kurnool District,
Madras, lying between 15® 39^ and 16® 15' N and 78° 4' and 79° 14'
E., with an area of 1,358 square miles. The population in 1901 was

NAND UJ^BAR TAL UK A 36 r

104,167, compared with 88,560 in 1891; the density is only 77
peisons per square mile, compared with the District average of 115.
It contains 102 villages, 6 of which are indm. The demand for land
revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 2,97,000. It is the
largest taluk in the District, but more than half of it is covered by the
Nallamalais and other ‘reseived’ forests. The Tungabhadra for a few
miles, and the Kistna throughout its course in the District, bound it on
the west and north, separating it from the Nizam’s Dominions. The
only other iiver of importance is the Bavanasi, which drains the
eastern part and flows into the Kistna at Sangameswaram, a place
of pilgrimage for Hindus. The Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal passes
through it for 69 miles, irrigating 36 villages. The total extent
watered in 1903-4 was 9,300 acres. Half of the arable aiea is black
cotton soil, 37 per cent black loam, and the remaining 13 per cent
led earth The taluk contains the largest forest area in the District
(709 square miles), almost the w^hole of which lies on the Nallamalais.
The annual rainfall is about 29 inches, a little above the District
aveiage. The climate is unhealthy, the people suffering very much
fiom fever and enlarged spleen.

Nandod.— Capital of the State of Rajpipla, in the Rewa Kantha
Agency, Bombay, situated in 21° 54'' N and 73® 34' E., about
32 miles east-by-north from Surat, on rising ground in a bend of
the Karjan river. Population (1901), 11,236. As early as 1304 the
Muhammadans aie said to have diiven the Nandod chief from his
capital, and made it the head-quarters of one of their districts, building
a mosque and issuing coin. The chief, though he had, since the fall of
the Muhammadan power (1730), recovered most of his territory, never
brought back his capital fiom Rajpipla to Nandod until 1830 Nan-
dod was formerly celebrated for its cutlery, sword-belts, and sdvihar-
skin pouches. There is at the present day a weaving industry in
coarse country cloth and tape. Nandod is a municipality, managed by
the State, with an income (1903-4) of Rs. 7,531 , a high school
has 149 pupils. There aie small water-works, intended mainly as a
piotection against file \ and the chief is now engaged upon a scheme for
a supply of drinking-water The public buildings include a gymnasium
and public library, and the Shewan memorial clock-tower.

Nandura. — Town in the Malkapur taluk of Buldana District, Berar,
situated in 20° 49' N. and 76° 31' E., with a station on the Nagpur
branch of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, 324 miles from Bom-
bay. Population (1901), 6,669. The town, which consists of Nandura
Buzurg and Nandura Khurd, divided by the river Dayanganga, was
largely populated by dyers fleeing from the depredations of Mahadaji
Sindhia in the pargana of Pimpalgaon Raja in 1790.

Nandurbar Taluka. — Tdluka of West Khandesh District, Bombay,

3^2 N. LVD URBAR TAL UK A

including the petty subdi\ision or ^ethd of Ninapui, hing between
21° and 2 i° 32^N. and 73°. 35' and 74° 31'' E, with an area of 992
square miles. It contains one town, Nandurbar (population, 10,922),
Its head-quarters, and 284 villages The population in 1901 was
87>437, compared with 105,866 in 1891. The decrease was due to
emigration and the prevalence of cholera. The density, 88 persons
per square mile, is much below the District average The demand
for land revenue in 1903-4 was 2-6 lakhs, and foi cesses Rs. 18,000.
The north of the tdluka foims part of the rich Tapti plain To the
south and south-west parallel spins jutting fiom the Western Ghats
divide the country into narrow village areas. The east is desolate and
bare of tiees. The climate is cool, and the annual rainfall aveiages
25 inches. The water-supply is scanty, the streams of only the Tapli
and the Siva lasting throughout the yesn .

Nandurbar Town. — Head-quaiters of the tdluka of the same name
in West Khandesh Distuct, Bombay, situated in 21° 22' N. and 74° 14'
E , on the Tapti Valley Railway. Population (1901), 10,922. The
town has been a municipality since 1867, with an average income
during the decade ending 1901 of Rs 12,500. In 1903-4 the income
w^as Rs 16,200, chiefly derned fiom urban rates and ta\es. Nandur-
bar cariies on a considerable trade with Surat and Bombay in cotton,
wheat, and seeds. There is also a local tiade in wood, tiansfened
from Taloda since the opening of the Tapti Valley Railway The
town contains thiee ginning factoiies and a cotton-press. Theie aie
also a Subordinate Judge’s court, two dispensaries, and six schools
with 450 pupils, of which two, mth 39 pupils, are foi giils. The
exports are cotton, linseed, wheat, gram, and glass oil; the imports
are salt, coco-nuts, and spices of all kinds. The staple industry is
the extraction of oil fiom a gra.ss known as roshd, about 100 stills
being at work. This oil has long been held in icpute as a lemedy
for iheumatism. A branch of the Scandinavian-Amencan Mission
has been established in the town Nandurbar is one of the oldest
places in Khandesh Under the name of Nandiguia it is sup-
posed to be mentioned in a Kanheii ca\e inscription of the thud
century a.d According to local tiadition, it was founded by Nand
Gauli, in whose famih it lemamed until conquered by the Muhamma-
dans under Muln-iid-din ChishtT, as.sisted by the Pli Saiyid Ala-ud din.
It was obtained by Mubaiak, chief of Khandesh, fiom the lulei of
Gujarat, in 1536 , 111 1665 a place of considerable prosperity,

renowned for its grapes and melons In 1666 an English factory was
established at Nandurbar, and by 1670 it had become so impoitant
a trading centre that the English factors lemoied hither from Ahmad-
abad It subsequently suffered in common with tlie rest of Khandesh
during the troubles of BajI Rao’s lule, and when it came into the

NANDYAL TOWN

3(33

po-^isession of the Eiitish in 1818, the town was more than half
deseited It contains a number of old mosques and remains of
ancient buildings. Many of the houses have beautifully carved fronts.

Nandyal Subdivision. — Subdivision of Kurnool District, Madras,
consisting of the Nandyal, Sirvel, and Koilkuntla talitks,

Nandyal Taluk. — Central tdhtk of Kurnool Distiict, Madras, lying
between 15° 21' and 15° 42' N. and 78° and 78° 47' E., with an area
of 854 square miles The population in 1901 was 110,292, compared
^Mth 96,292 in 1891; the density was 129 persons per square mile,
compared with an average of 115 in the Distiict as a w^hole Next
to R.imallakota, it possesses the largest Musalman population. It
has one town, Nandyal (a municipality with a population of 15,137
and the head-quaiters) , and 91 villages. The demand for land
levenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 2,72,000. It is shut
m bet\\een two langes of hills, the Nallamalais on the east and the
i^hiamalas on the west, between which flows the Kunderu iiver
The Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal runs thiough the centre from noith
to south. Most of the countiy is black cotton soil, but m the villages
at the foot of the hills the soil is led and gravelly. The rainfall at
Nandyal town is heavier than at any other station in the District
(33 inches), but the average for the taluk is only about 28 inches
The climate is unhealthy, malarial fevei being prevalent foi the gi eater
part of the yeai. ‘Reserved’ foiests cover 351 square miles, almost
entiiely on the Nallamalais and Eriamalas.

Nandyal Town. — Head-quaiteis of the subdivision and taluk of
the same name in Kurnool Distiict, Madras, situated in 15^ 30' N. and
78° 29' E , on the right bank of the Kunderu, on the trunk load fiom
Kurnool to Chittooi, 45 miles from Kuinool and about 360 miles from
Madras city. Population (1901), 15,137. It is the head-quarters of
the divisional officer and of the Assistant Superintendent of police
It was constituted a municipality in Octobei, 1899. The receipts
and expenditure in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 23,500 and Rs. 22,000
respectively. Most of the former is derived from the taxes on land
and houses and fiom tolls The municipal hospital contains beds for
18 in-patients. The town is situated below a large irrigation tank,
and being suriounded by ‘wet cultivation’ on all sides has the
reputation of being the most unhealthy station in an unhealthy
District. After the opening of the Southern Mahiatta Railway,
Nandyal began to rise fast into commercial importance. It is now
the centre of the gram and cotton trade of the southern half of the
District. It contains two steam cotton-presses owned by Euiopeans,
which employ 119 persons in the season. It is also noted for its
lacquer-ware The chief educational institution is the high school
managed by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel,

VOL. xvin. A a

3^4

Nangam.— Petty State in Rewa Kaniha, Bombay.

Nanguneri Taluk. — Southern of Tinnevelly District, Madias,

Ijiiig between 8° 9' and 8® 38' N. and 77® 24' and 71° SS' "ith
an area of 730 square miles It is the least thickly peopled /d/ak in
the District, having a population of 202,528 in 1901, conipaied uith
174,418 in 1891, the density being anl> 280 persons per squaie mile
But though this is much below the average in Tinnevelly, it is above
that for the Presidency as a vs hole. Theie aie only two towns, Nan-
GUNERf (population, 6,580), the head-quaiters, and Vadakku VALLnuR
(6,903), both situated on the trunk road between Tinnevelly town
and Tuvandium. The number of villages is 231 The demand foi land
revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 3,65,000. The td/^ik
IS composed of led cla), loams, and sands, excepting a strip parallel
with the sea and extending fiom 3 to xo miles inland, where white
sand and ten (blown sand) tracts prevail. Palmyia palms abound
thioughout, and in the east and south aie almost the sole means of
support of the inhabitants In the north-east and centie are nunieious
tanks, both ram-fed and supplied by mountain streams, and a very
large number of wells are to be found in the south. The villages at
the foot of the Western Ghats, which form the western boundary ol
the tdlukj are well supplied duimg both monsoons with water from
that lange, which is more picturesque heie than elsewhere in the
District and is clothed with dense forest to the very top.

Nanguneri Town. — Head-quarteis of the tdluk of the same name
in Tinnevelly District, IMadias, situated in 8° 29' N. and 77° 40' E., on
the trunk road fioni Tinnevelly town to Trivandrum, r8 miles from
the foimei. Population (1901), 6,580 It contains the niath^ or leligious
house, of the Vanamamalai Jir, the head piiest of a section of the
Tengalai sub-sect of Vaishnavite Biahmans. iichl} endowed temple
IS under the contiol of this math* Marugalkurichi, neai Nanguneri,
IS one of the chief centres of the Maravan caste in the DistiicL. A
special police foice is now^ stationed heie, in consequence of the iiols
which took place between the Mara vans and Shanans in 1899 Local
affairs are adniinisteied by a Union panchdyat.

Nanjangud Taluk. —Cential tdluk of Mysore Distiict, Mysoie
State, lying betw^een ii® 51' and 12® 14' N. and 76® 27' and 76° 56' E.,
with an area of 384 square miles. The population in 1901 w^as
ioS,i73, compaied with 97,374 in 1891. The fdluk contams two
towns, Nanjangud (population, 5,991), the head-quarters, and Kalale
(2,500) j and 206 villages. The land revenue demand m 1903-4 was
Rs 1,71,000. The Kabbam flows thiough the north of the tdluk from
west to east, receiving fiom the south the Nugu and the Gundal. Jola
IS much grown. Gold-mming was commenced at A\"olageie, south-
west of Nanjangud, but has been stopped on account of the poor

AANNILAM TALUK 365

prospectb. In the iiorth-west are quanies of potstone intermixed with
schistose miea.

Nanjangud Town. — Head-quarteis of the taluk of the same name
111 Mysoie Distiict, Mysoie State, situated in 12° 7' N. and 76° 41' E.,
near the Kabbani, on the Mysore State Railway The population fell
fiom 7,292 in 1891 to 5,991 in 1901, owing to plague. Early in
the eleventh century the town seems to ha\e been held by Danayaks
belonging to Eettadakote on the Gopalswami Eetta. The place is
noted for the temple of Nanjundesvaia, w^hich was endowed in the
fifteenth century by the Ummattiii chief, in the sixteenth century by
the Vijayanagar kings, and latteily, in the nineteenth century, by the
Mysoie Rajas. The municipality dates fioni 1(873 The receipts and
expendituie during the ten years ending 1901 aveiaged Rs 9,800 and
Rs. 11,000 In 1903-4 they weie Rs 6,300 and Rs. 7,900.

Nanjarajpatna. — Northern taluk of Cooig, Southern India, lying
between 12° 21' and 12° 51' N. and 75® 41'' and 76° 5' E., with an area
of 355 square miles. The population fell from 43,395
42,720 in 1901 The taluk contains thiee towns — Somvarpet (popu-
lation, i,74S), the head-quarteis, Fraserpet (1,600), and Kodlipct (889)
— and 280 villages. It is very hilly m the west, having steep declivi-
ties fiom Pushpagin, and a high ridge runs north and south thiough
Yelusavirashime. The Cauvery forms a great part of the eastern
boundary, and leceives most of the w^ateis of the taluk by means of the
Hatti or Harangi, which flows into it near Ramaswami Kanave. The
extieme northern boundary towards the east is formed by the Hemavati,
and farther south, towards the west, by the Kumaiadhari This paiL
of the countiy lies outside Coorg pioper, and theie are no Coorgs in
the north except a few’ officials. The north-west is occupied b\
Yedavanad Coorgs, who wear the Cooig dress and aic javia lyots, but
aie by origin Wokkaligas of Kanara and Manjarabad, and not so
wealthy as the Coorgs. The 1 ice-fields in Yedavanad w’hich have
a good water-supply yield two crops in the year. The wild sago-palm
IS caiefully tended for the sake of the toddy drawn from it, and for the
faiinaceous substance obtained fiom the pith, which is prepared foi
food by the poorer classes The inhabitants of the Kanave hoblis to
the east aie identical with the neighbouring Mysore ryots, and cultivate
‘ dry grams,’ such as rdgi^ horse-gram, beans, &:c The sandal-tree giows
abundantly m this taluk,

Nanke. — One of the Southern Shan States, Burma. See Namhkai.

Nannilam Taluk. — Eastern taluk of Tanjore Distiict, Madras,
lying betw’een 10° 44' and ii® 1/ N. and 79° 27' and 79® 51' E., with
an area of 293 square miles. The population was 214,788 in 1901,
compaied with 216,118 in 1891. Nannilam Town, the head-quarters,
has a population (1901) of 6,727, and Kudavasal, a dit^xxt'^-tahHlddr^

A a 2

366

NANNILAM TALUK

station, 5,419 The number of villages is 242 The demand foi land
revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 11,33,000. The taluk
IS situated entirely within the iich delta of the Cauvery river and is
a singularly prosperous tract The land revenue averages as much as
Rs. 4-13-3 per head, and is the highest in any taluk in the Distuct,
while the average holding pays an assessment of Rs. 35, or more than
in any other but Shiyali, and there are more large landowners than
in any other taluk The rainfall is good (44 to 46 inches annually),
more than half the soil is alluvial, and by far the larger portion of the
land IS irrigated.

Nannilam Town. — Head-quarters of the taluk of the same name
in Tanjore District, Madras, situated in 10® 53' N. and 79° 36^ E
Population (1901), 6,727. Weaving is practised on a small scale.
The station of this name on the District board railway is about 3 miles
from the town There is an old temple dedicated to Madhuvaneswara-
swami, or ‘the lord of the honey-forest,’ and it is pointed out as curious
that the wild bees still make their nests in this.

Nanpara Tahsil. — Northern tahsll of Bahraich District, United
Provinces, comprising the parganas of Nanpara, Charda, and Dhai man-
pur, and lying between 27° 39' and 28° 24' N. and 81° 3' and 81° 49' E.j
with an area of 1,050 square miles. Population increased from
311,281 m 1891 to 325,587 in 1901 There are 546 villages and
only one town, Nanpara (population, 10,601), the /a/mV head-quarters.
The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 3,92,000, and for
cesses Rs 70,000. The density of population, 310 persons per square
mile, IS the lowest in the Distnct. A considerable area in the north-
west and north is occupied by ‘ reserved ’ forests. The Gogra forms
the western boundary, and the tahsil is crossed by the Girwa, a branch
of the Gogra, and by the Sarju, a large rapid stream Towards the
centre there is a plateau of good loam, which in the east sinks into the
valley of the Rapt! and its tributary, the Bhakla or Singhia The west
is a iich alluvial area in the Gogra basin, which seldom requires irriga-
tion. In 1903-4 the area under cultivation was 524 square miles, of
which only 20 were irrigated

Nanpara Estate.— A talukddri estate in the Bahraich and Gonda
Districts of Oudh, United Provmces, comprising an area of nearly 600
square miles The revenue and cesses payable to Government amount
to 2 2 lakhs and Rs 36,000 respectively, while the rent-roll exceeds
9 lakhs. Shah Jahan granted a commission to an Afghan named
Rasul Khan to reduce the turbulent Banjar^ in Bahraich, and assigned
him five villages and a tenth of the revenue of a large tiact. His
descendants acquired a considerable estate. In 1847 Ra^j^ Munawwar
All Khan was killed by the accidental discharge of a gun, and the
estate suffered much from the quarrels of his widows. At annexation

NAOGAON SUBDIVISION

367

the iightful heir was recognized, and undei the able management of the
late Sir Jang Bahadur Khan, K.C I E , it became extremely prospeious.
The present Raja, Muhammad Sadik Khan, succeeded in 1902.

Nanpara Town. — Head-quarters of the fahsll of the same name
in Bahraich District, United Provinces, situated in 27° 52' N and
81^30' E, on the Bengal and North-Western Railway. Population
(1901), 10,601. Tradition states that it was founded by Nidbai, an
oil-sellei, whence the name Nidhaipuiwa, coiiupted into Nadpaia, and
latterly to Nanpara About 1630 an Afghan in the service of Shah
Jahan, having received a grant of this and four other villages, laid the
foundations of the present Nanpara Estate The town contains the
usual offices, and also a dispensaiy, and a branch of the American
Methodist Mission It has been administered as a municipality since
1871. During the ten years ending 1901 the income and expenditure
averaged Rs 9,000 In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 14,000, chiefly
from octroi (Rs. 8,000) , and the expenditure was Rs. 10,000. There
is a flourishing export trade in grain and some traffic with Nepal Two
schools have 150 pupils.

Nanta. — Village in the Ladpura district of the State of Kotah
Rajputana, situated in 25° 12' N. and 75° 49' E., about 3 miles
north-west of Kotah city. It was given m jdgtr to the Jhala Faujdars
of Kotah about the beginning of the eighteenth century, and in the
time of the regent Zalim Singh was a flourishing town ; but it is
now little more than an agricultural village, containing, among other
inhabitants, a colony of about 300 of the criminal tribes (Baoris,
Kanjars, and Sansias), whom the Darbar is endeavouring to con-
vert into lespectable agriculturists Zalim Singh’s old palace is a
fine specimen of a Rajnut baronial residence , but it has not been
used for years, and its cloistered court, pavilions, fountains, &:c ,
are falling into decay.

Naogaon Subdivision. — Northern subdivision of Rajshahi Dis-
trict, Eastern Bengal and Assam, lying between 24° 32' and 25^ 3' N.
and 88° 23' and 89® 10' E., with an area of 867 square miles. The
subdivision, which is intersected by the Atrai, contains much swampy
and waterlogged land to the east of that river ; but to the north-west
the country forms part of the Barind, an elevated and undulating tract
consisting of a stiff red clay covered with brushwood. The population
was 476,072 in 1901, compared with 424,545 in 1891, the density
being 549 persons per square mile. It contains 2,346 villages, one
of which, Naogaon (population, 4,092), forms the head-quarters ,
but no town. It is best known on account of the gdnja produced in
the Naogaon and Panchupur tkdnas, which supply the whole of Bengal
and Assam and pait of the United Provinces A large annual fair
IS held at Manda.

NAOGAO\ J^TLLAGE

Naogaon Village. — Head-quartets of the subdivision of the same
name in Rajshahi District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated m
24® 48' N. and 88° 57' E, on the west bank of the Jamuna river.
Population (1901), 4,092 The village derives importance from being
the centre of the gan^a cultivation, and nearly a lakh has been spent
on the gdnja offices and storehouses. It contains the usual subdivi-
sional offices , the sub-jail has accommodation for 18 prisoners.

Naorangpur. — Zamnddn tahsll of Vizagapatam Distiict, Madias
See Nowrangpur.

Naosari. — Frdyif^ tdluka^ and town In Baioda State. See Navsari.

Napad. — Village m the Anand tahfka of Kaiia Distuct, Bombay,
situated m 22° 29' N. and 72° 59' E, 14 miles west of the Vasad
railway station. Population (1901), 5,053. Till 1869 NapM was
a mdmhitddr's station. North of the village is a handsome pond,
500 yards in ciicuit, said to have been built about four bundled yeais
ago by a Pathan named Taze Khan Narpali, governor of Petlad
It is enclosed by brick walls, and is octagonal in shape, a tiiangular
flight of steps within each side leading to the water. On the west
is an Idgah, or place for Id prayers, with a flight of gianite steps
leading to the lake. Along the bank beyond the Idgah aie traces
of terraces and other buildings. The well, to the east of the \illage,
also the work of Taze Khan Narpali, was repaired in 1838 by a Baroda
merchant

Nar. — Town in the Petlad tdhika^ Baroda prdnt^ Baroda State,
situated in 22° 28' N. and 72° 45' E, on the Petlad-Cambay Rail-
way Population (1901), 6,525. The town possesses a veinacular
school and two dharmmlas.

Nara. — Petty State in Rfwa Kantha, Bombay

Nara, Eastern. — An important water channel m Sind, Bombay.
It IS commonly spoken of as a natural branch of the Indus, and,
judging from the enormous size of its bed and the fact that it has
no source, may possibly have been so formerly. The upper part of
the Nara iiver, as it existed before works were undertaken on it
by the British Government, was merely a small channel m the sand-
hills of the eastern desert of Sind, thiough w^hich spill-w^atei from
the Indus, above Rohri, found its way to the alluvial plain of the
Indus in Cential and Lowei Sind As much as 90,000 cubic feet
per second was roughly calculated to have spilled into it during the
flood of 1851. Owing to the very uncertain supply thus recei\ed
in the Nara, a channel from the Indus at Rohii, X2 miles in length,
known as the Nara Supply Channel, was constructed by Govern-
ment in 1858-9, on the recommendation of Lieutenant Fife. This
channel was designed to carry an average discharge of 8,413 cubic
feet per second during the inundation peiiod, but at times twice

NARAHTA 360

this quantity has passed thiough it The Naia iivei itself has re-
mained untouched fiom the tail of the suppls chanel to the Jamrao
Canal mouth, a length of 100 miles, and this length has been gradu-
ally canalized by the silty discharge passing down it.

From 1854 to 1858 most of the depressions on the left side of
the Nara between the Jamrao mouth and the present head of the
Thar Canal were embanked, and m 1857 watei, admitted as an
experiment, flowed at least as far south as the embankments extended
Between i860 and 1867 the Nara bed from the Makhi Weir to the
Thar Wen was cleaied in lengths aggregating 40 miles and widths
averaging 150 feet. From 1876 to t886 this work was continued below^
the Thar Weir. In 1884 the fiist cut was made by Government
thiough the Allah Band, a bioad ridge of ground on the Rann of
Cutch thiown up by an eaithquake in 1819 The course of the
Nara is generally southwards, ciossing the tenitory of the Mir of
Khaupur fm a distance of too miles and then running through the
Thai and Paikai District, having generally on its left bank the sand-
hills of the desert, and discharging at its 250th mile into the Puian,
an old channel of the Indus, which flows to the sea 80 miles faithei
south through the Rann of Cutch.

The principal canals in connexion with the Eastern Nara and then
lengths, including branches, are — the Jamrao, 588 miles , the Mithrao,
155 miles ; the Thar, 72 miles; and the Hiral, 41 miles. The aggre-
gate cost of these works (exclusive of the Jamrao) up to the end of
1903-4 amounted to 65*27 lakhs , the leceipts in the same 5^ear were
5-63 lakhs, and the total charges (exclusive of interest) 1-14 lakhs.
The gioss income was thus 8*62 per cent on the capital expended,
and the net receipts 6*82 pei cent. The aiea irrigated was 429 square
miles.

The Jamrao, constructed in the years 1894 to 1902, serves the
Distiicts of Thar and Parkai and Hyderabad, and the others supply
the former only. The Nara Supply Channel, the Eastern Nara,
and the Mithrao are partly navigable foi a total length of 425
miles.

Nara, Western. — Canal m Sind, Bombay. See Larkana Dis-
trict.

Nara Valley. — Subdivision of Thar and Parkar District, Sind,
Bombay, composed of the Umarkot, K hi pro, S^nohar, Mirpur
Khas, Jamesabad, Pithoro, and Singhoro taluka^.

Narahia. — Village m the Madhiibani subdivision of Darbbanga
District, Bengal, situated in 26° 22' N and 86° 32' E Population
(190T), 5,069. Narahia is connected by road with the Bengal and
North-Western Railway, and is an important centre for the giain
traffic with Nepal

NARAINA

Naraina. — Head-quarters of the taluk or subdivision of the same
name in the Sambhai mzdmat of the State of Jaipui, Rajputana,
situated in 48' N. and 75^ 13' E, on the Rajputana-Malwa Rail-
way, 41 miles west of Jaipur city, and 43 miles north-east of Ajmci.
Population (1901), 5,266. The town possesses 5 schools attended
by 160 boys, and a post office.

The place is famous as the head-quaiters of the sect of Dadu-
panthis, from whom the foot-soldiers of the State, called Nagas, aie
reciuited. The Dadupanthis of Rajputana numbered 8,871 in 1901,
and 8,610 of them, or over 97 per cent, were enumerated m the
State of Jaipur. Dadu, the founder of the sect, is said to have
lived in the time of Akbai, and to have died in 1603 near the lake
at Naraina. The cardinal points of his teaching weie the equality
of all men, strict vegetarianism, total abstinence from the use of
liquor, and lifelong celibacy. His piecepts, which numbered 5,000,
are all in veise and are embodied in a book called the Bam^ which
is kept in a sanctnaiy known as the Dadudwara After Dadu’s
death his followeis were divided into two sects : namely, the Vir-
aktas, wffio profess to have renounced the world and its pleasuies,
live on alms, spend their time in contemplation and in imparting
the teachings of Dadu to others, and are usually distinguishable by
the strip of red cloth which they wear , and the Sadhus or Swamis,
including the section called Naga. The latter name, which means
‘naked,’ is said to have been applied to them in consequence of
the scantiness of the dhoti or loin-cloth which they used to weai
Strict celibacy being enjoined, the Dadupanthis recruit then num-
bers by adoption from all but the lowest classes of Hindus and
Musalmans In the cases of Nagas, the adopted boys are at once
trained in the profession of arms, and thus develop into men of
fine physique During the Mutiny the Nagas were the only body
of men really true to the Darbai, and it has been stated that,
but for them, the so-called regular army of Jaipur would have re-
belled

Narainganj. — Subdivision and town in Dacca District, Eastern
Bengal and Assam. See Narayanganj

Naraingarh. — TaJml of Ambala District, Punjab, lying at the foot
of the Himalayas, between 30° 19' and 30° 45' N. and 76° 52' and
77° 19^ E , with an aiea of 436 square miles. The population in 1901
was 131,042, compared with 141,326 in 1891. It contains the town of
Sadhaura (population, 9,812), and 317 villages, of which Naraingarh
IS the head-quarters. The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted
to 2 3 lakhs. The tahsil includes a tract of hilly country on the north,
culminating in the Kaioh peak, 4,919 feet abo\e the sea. The lower
hills aie devoid of vegetation , and below them comes a tiact of loiigh

yAJ^A SAJA ry ui to ivy 3 1 1

stony countiy much cut up by ravines, the continuous advance of
which IS a most senous difficulty for the cultivator The southern half
IS faiily level.

Naral Subdivision. — South-eastern subdivision of Jessore Distnct,
Bengal, lying between 22° 58' and 23° 21' N. and 89° 23' and
89° 50' E., with an aica of 487 squaie miles The population in 1901
was 352,281, compared with 348,537 in 1891 It contains 810 villages,
including Naral, its head-quarters, but no town. The subdivision,
which is entirely alluvial, is less unhealthy than other paits of Jessore,
and being lower, it still receives occasional deposits of silt ; it is thus
more thickly populated, and has a density of 723 persons per square
mile. The principal marts are at Naral, Naldi, and Lohagara

Naral Village. — Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same
name m Jessore District, Bengal, situated in 23° 10' N. and 89° 30' E ,
22 miles east of Jessore town on the Chitra over, which is here very
deep and affoids a legular route foi large boats throughout the year.
Population (1901), 1,225. Naial contains the usual public offices,
the sub-jail has accommodation for 12 pnsoneis, and there is a
good collegiate school teaching up to the F.A. standard, with a hostel
attached The Naral family aie the leading landholders of Jessore
District, and seveial works of public utility have been constructed by
them.

Narasannapeta Tahsil, — Zamindan tahsil m Ganjto Distnct,
Madras, consisting of several petty proprietary estates which adjoin the
Government tahik of Chicacole, with an area of 51 square miles. The
population in 1901 was 26,452, compaied with 24,878 in 1891. They
live in 41 villages The head-quarteis, Narasannapeta Town, is out-
side its limits The demand for land revenue and cesses m 1903-4
was Rs. 40,400. The Urlam estate, which is nearly 20 miles in area,
is a prosperous tract, being fertile and irrigated by river channels from
the Vamsadhara. Bell-metal vessels are made at Mobagam.

Narasannapeta Town. — Head-quarters of a ^i^^^vXytahs^lddr in
the Chicacole tdhik of Ganjam District, Madras, situated in x8° 26' N.
and 84° 2' E , on the trunk road 14 miles north of Chicacole Popula-
tion (1901), 7,886, chiefly weavers and traders

Narasapatnam Subdivision. — Subdivision of Vizagapatam Dis-
trict, Madras, consisting of the taluk of Golgonda (including Agency
area), the za^mnddri iahsth of Viravilli (including Agency area) and
Anakapalle, and the taluk of Sarvasiddhi.

Narasapatnam Town, — Head-quarters of the Golgonda taluk
and of the Narasapatnam subdivision, Vizagapatam District, Madras,
situated m i7°4o'N. and 82° 37' E., 8 miles from the foot of the
hills in the midst of a fertile plain. Population (1901), 10,589. It is
a centie of trade with the hills to the noith

372

XARA 5 ;APUR STTBUTVISTOK

Narasapur Subdivision.— SubdiMsion of Kistna District, Madras,
consisting of the Narasapur, Tanuku, and Bhimav\ram tahiks.

Narasapur Taluk, — Coast fahik of Kistna District, Madras, lying
between t 6° 19' and 16° 39' N. and 81® 27' and 81° 57' E., which till
lecently included the large Nagaram Island since transfeired to
Godavari District Its present area is 296 sqiiaie miles. The popula-
tion in 1901 was 151,342, compared with 136,064 in 1891. It contains
three towns, Narasapur (population, 10,279), the head-quarters, Pala-
KOLLU (10,848), and Achanta (8,382) , and 78 villages. The demand
foi land levenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 10,22,000
The fa/2/k IS very feitile The chief ciops arc tice and gaiden and
orchard produce

Narasapur Town. — Head-quarters of the subdivision and idhik of
the same name in Kistna District, Madias, situated in 16° 26' N and
8r° 42' E., on the Vasishta mouth of the Godavan nver, 6 miles from
the sea, and on the Narasapur canal, 35 miles from Nidadavolu. Popu-
lation (1901), 10,279 The Dutch very early established a branch of
their Palakollu factory at Naiasapur and had an iron foundry here ,
some of theii buildings still remain The English occupied the
northern suburb in 1677 In 1756 they were expelled from this, as
from their other factoiies in the District, by the French In 1759 it
was regained by an expedition detached by Colonel Forde on his way
to Masulipatam The factory was not abolished till 1827 The trade
of Narasapur has now almost entiiely disappeared, and the only article
of export IS bones, which are sent away to the value of Rs. 1,500
annually. The Taylor high school, founded in 1852, deserves mention
as the outcome of the first systematic attempt to extend primary educa-
tion in the Presidency Tt is managed by a local committee and has
now 400 pupils The town has been constituted a Union

Narasaraopet Subdivision. — Subdivision of Guntur Distiirt,
Madras, consisting of the Narasaraopet, Pvtnad, and Vinitkonda
taluks.

Narasaraopet Taluk . — Taluk m Guntur Distiict, Madras, lying
between 15° 53^ and 16° 24' N. and 79° 48' and 80° 21' E , with an
area of 713 square miles. The population in 1901 was 168,547,
compared with 156,377 m 1891. Narasaraopet, the head-quarters,
is a Union of 7,108 inhabitants; and there are also 114 villages.
The demand for land levenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to
Rs. 4,30,000. Most of the taluk pioduces Mry crops,’ but there are
patches of irrigation under ram-fed tanks The gracing land is excel-
lent and the cattle bred here are well-known. Several bold hills, such
as Kotappakonda, diversify the countiy ; and it is intersected by water-
courses, which are diy for the gi eater part of the year, but become
foaming torrents when ram falls.

yjj^A K i ay; i.y/ to jfy

373

Narasaraopet Town.— Head-qimrteis of the sulDchvision and
of the same name in Climtrii Distncl, Madras, situated in i6° 15'' N.
and 80® 4' E , on the Southern Mahratta Railway Population (1901),
7,108. It has been constituted a Union It took its name from
Narasa Rao, fathei of the Malra7u Venkata Ounda Rao who enlaiged
the fine tank in the town Theie are ancient temples in the place, and
inscriptions are to be seen on a slab in front of the shrine to Pattabhi
Ramaswami and m the roof of that to Bhimeswara. Not fai off is the
famous shiine at Kotappakonda, wheie at the new moon festival in
Febiuaiy as many as 40,000 flindus gather.

Narayanganj Subdivision. — North-eastern subdivision of Dacca
District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, l3nng bet\\een 23° 34'' and 24®
15' N and 90° 27' and 90° 59' E., with an aiea of 641 squaie
miles The greatei pait of the subdivision consists of a level plain
intersected by numerous watei courses, but to the exticme west this
plain merges in a small tract of broken jungle-covei ed country The
population was 660,712 in 1901, compaied with 574,516 m 1891, the
density being 1,031 peisons per squaie mile. The subdivision contains
one town, Narayanganj (population, 24,472), its head-quarters; and
2,177 villages. The pimcipal seats of commerce aie Narayanganj
town on the Lakhya, and Baidya Bazar and Narsmgdl on the Meghna.
The chief place of historical importance is Sonargaon. A large
bathing festival is held annually at Nangalband

Narayanganj Town. — Head-quarters of the subdivision of the
same name in Dacca District, Eastern Bengal and Assam,* situated
ifi 23° 37' N. and 90° 30' K , on the west bank of the Lakhya at
its confluence with the Dhaleswar! just before that iivei joins the
Meghna. The population in 1901 was 24,472, of whom 50 8 per
cent, were Hindus and 48*4 Muhammadans, there were only 169
Christians. Narayanganj is distant from D\cc\ City 9 miles by
land and about 20 by water, and is in reality the port of that city ;
it extends for 3 miles along the bank of the Lakhya, and, with its
suburb Madanganj on the opposite bank, is the most progressive town
in Eastern Bengal. The population has nearly doubled since 1881 ;
and had the Census been taken during the lains in the height of
the jute season, the number of inhabitants would probably have
exceeded 35,000. In the neighbourhood are several foits built by
Mir Jumla to repel the invasions of the Maghs or Aiakanese, and a
mosque known as the Kadam Rasul which is held in great leverence
by pious Musalmans Narayanganj, including Madanganj, was con-
stituted a municipality m 1876 The income during the decade
ending 1901-2 averaged Rs. 55,000 and the expenditure Rs. 52,000.
In T 903-4 the income was Rs. 76,000, including Rs. 38,000 derived
from a tax on houses and lands, Rs. 22,000 from a conservancy rate,

374

NARAYANGANJ TOWN

and Rs. 6,000 from tolls. The incidence of taxation was Rs. 2-1 1- 10
per head of the population. In the same year the expenditure was
Rs. 69,000, including Rs. 3,000 spent on lighting, Rs. 3,000 on
drainage, Rs. 25,000 on conservancy, Rs. 3,000 on medical lelief,
Rs 16,000 on roads, and Rs 1,100 on education. NMyanganj has
the appearance of a Western lather than of an Eastern town, and
has not unjustly been called the model municipality of Bengal The
municipality owns a large market, and a scheme has been formulated
for supplying two of the three wards with unfiltered watei at an
estimated cost of Rs 1,79,000

Narayanganj was already a busy market a century ago Since then
Its commerce has increased enormously, owing to the growth of the
jute trade and development of rail and steamei communications \ and
it IS now the busiest trade mart in Eastern Bengal. It taps the huge
jute aieas of Mymensmgh, north Tippera, and Dacca, and focuses the
imports from Calcutta for their dense populations. Narayanganj owes
Its prosperity to its ready access to the seaports. It is connected with
Calcutta by steamer and rail via Goalundo, and with Chittagong by
steamer and rail via Chandpur, or by brigs, which, however, are now
being ousted by the railway. On account of its trade with Chittagong,
Narayanganj has been declared a port under the Sea Customs Act.
The expansion of the jute trade is of comparatively recent date, in
1872 there were only 6 screw-houses in Narayanganj, while in 1901
theie were 53 factories with 73 presses, mostly hydraulic, employing

6.000 hands. The annual export has increased from 40,000 to

320.000 tons during the last thirty years. The jute is pressed into
bales for export to Europe, two-thirds of the output being shipped
from Calcutta, and one-third from Chittagong.

Narayanganj contains the usual public offices, a sub-jail with
accommodation for 36 piisoners, civil courts, a branch of the Bank
of Bengal, two higher class English schools, and a hospital with
30 beds.

Narayanpet Taluk. — Formei taluk m Mahbubnagar Distnct,
Hyderabad State, with an area of 345 square miles. The population
in 1901, including was 68,164, compared with 59,967 in 1891

It contained one town, Narayanpft (population, 12,011) the head-
quarters , and 78 villages, of which 6 were jclgir The land revenue in
1901 was r 3 lakhs. In 1905 the taluk was broken up, and its villages
were transferred to the Makhtal taluk and the Yadgir taluk in Gul-
barga District.

Narayanpet Town.— Town in the Makhtal taluk of Mahbubnagai
District, Hyderabad State, situated in 16° 45' N and 77° 30' E ,
36 miles west of Mahbubnagai town. Population (1901), 12,011. It
is noted foi the manufacture of supeiior silk and cotton saris, and

NARBADA RIVER

375

slippers of coloured leather, which aie largely exported. It is the
heaiquarteis of the Second Talukdar, and has a Munsifs court,
a post office, a dispensary, a boys’ and a girls’ school with 319 and 36
pupils respectively, and the Police inspector’s office. It is a flourish-
ing commercial centre, connected with Saidapur station on the Great
Indian Peninsula Railway by a feeder road 2 1 miles long

Narbada Division — Division in the Central Provinces. See
Nerbudda.

Narbada River {Narmada , the Namados of Ptolemy ; Namnadios
of the Feriplus ), — One of the most impoitant rivers of India, which rises
on the summit of the plateau of Amarkantak (22° 41' N. and 81° 48'
E ), at the north-eastern apex of the Satpura lange, in Rewah (Central
India), and enters the sea below Broach in the Bombay Presidency
after a total course of 801 miles.

The river issues from a small tank 3,000 feet above the sea, sur-
rounded by a group of temples and guarded by an isolated colony of
priests, and falls over a basaltic cliff in a descent of 80 feet. After
a course of about 40 miles through the State of Rewah, it enters the
Central Provinces and winds circuitously through the rugged hills of
Mandla, pui suing a westerly course until it flows under the walls of the
ruined palace of Ramnagar. From Ramnagar to Mandla town it
forms, for some 15 miles, a deep reach of blue water, unbroken by
rocks and clothed on either bank by forest. The river then turns
north m a nairow loop towards Jubbulpore, close to which city, after
a fall of 30 feet called the Dhudndhdra or ‘ fall of mist,’ it flows for
two miles in a narrow channel which it has carved for itself through
locks of marble and basalt, its width here being only about 20 yards.
Emerging from this channel, which is well-known as the ‘ Marble
Rocks,’ and flowing west, it enters the fertile basin of alluvial land
forming the Naibada Valley, which lies between the Vmdhyan and
Satpura Hills, and extends for 200 miles from Jubbulpore to Handia,
with a width of about 20 miles to the south of the river. The Vin-
dhyan Hills rise almost sheer from the northern bank along most of the
valley, the bed of the river at this part of its course being the boundary
between the Central Provinces and Central India (principally the
States of Bhopal and Indore). Here the Narbada passes Hoshang-
abad and the old Muhammadan towns of Handia and Nimawar. The
banks in this part of its valley are about 40 feet high, and the fall in
its course between Jubbulpore and Hoshangabad is 340 feet. Below
Handia the hills again approach the river on both sides and are
clothed with dense forests, the favourite haunts of the Pindaris and
other lobbers of former days. At Mandhar, 25 miles below Handia,
there is a fall of 40 feet, and another of the same height occurs at
Punasa. The bed of the river m its whole length within the Central

MARBADA RIVER

Provinces is one sheet of basalt, seldom exceeding 150 )/ards in
absolute \Mdth, and, at intervals of eveiy few miles, upheaved into
iidges ^\hlcll ciosb it diagonally, and behind which deep pools are
formed. Emeiging fiom the hills beyond Mandhata on the bordeis of
the Ceiitial Provinces, the Narbada now enters a second open alluvial
basin, flowing through Central India (pimcipally the State of Indore)
foi neaily 100 miles. The hills are here well away from the iivei, the
Satpuias being 40 miles to the south and the Vindhyas about 16 miles
to the north In this part of its couise the river passes the town of
Maheshwai, the old capital of the Holkar family, wheie its noithein
bank is studded with temples, palaces, and bathing ghdts^ many of
them built by the famous Ahalya Bai whose mausoleum is here The
last 170 miles of the liver’s course arc m the Bombay Piesidency,
where it first separates the States of Baroda and Rajpipla and then
meanders through the feitile District of Broach. Below Broach Cri\
It giadually widens into an estuary, w'hosc shoies are 17 miles apart
as It joins the Gulf of Cambay.

The drainage aiea of the Narbada, estimated at about 36,000 squaic
miles, IS pnncipall) to the south and comprises the noithern poition
of the Satpuia plateau and the valley Districts. The chief tiibutaries
aie the Banjar in IMandla, the Sher and Shakkar in Narsinghpur, and
the Tawa, Ganjal, and Chhota Tawa in Hoshangabad District The
only important tributaiy to the north is the Hiran, which flows in
beneath the Vmdhyan Hills, m Jubbulpore Distiict. Most of these
iiveis have a short and piecipitous course fiom the hills, and fill with
extiaoidmaiy rapidity in the lains, pioducmg similarly rapid floods in
the Naibada itself. Owing to this and to its locky course, the Naibada
is useless for navigation except by countiy boats between August and
February, save in the last part of its couisc, w^herc it is navigable by
vessels of 70 tons burden up to the city of Broach, 30 miles fiom
Its mouth It IS crossed by lailway budges below Jubbulpore,
at Hoshangabad, and at Mortakka. The influence of the tides
reaches to a point 55 miles fiom the sea. The height of the banks
throughout the gi eater part of its course makes the river useless for
irrigation

The Narbada, which is refeiied to as the Rewa (probably fiom the
Sanskrit root rev^ ‘to hop,’ owing to the leaping of the stream down its
locky bed) in the Mahabharata and Ramayana, is said to have spiung
from the body of Siva and is one of the most sacred iivcrs of India,
local devotees placing it above the Ganges, on the ground that, whereas
It is necessary to bathe in the Ganges for forgiveness of sms, this object
IS attained by mere contemplation of the Narbaaa. ‘ xks w^ood is cut
by a saw (says a Hindu proveib), so at the sight of the holy Narbada
do a man’s sins fall away.’ Ganga heiself, so local legend aveis, must

XAREGJL

377

clip in the Ndibada unce a yeai. bhc coiiicb in the loiin of a coal-
black cow, but returns home ciuiLe white, hec tioni all sin. The
Ganges, nioieovei, was (accoiding to the Reiua Purana) to ha\o lost
its puiifying Mitues in the yeai 1895, though this lact has not }et
impaued its lejiutation foi sanctity X. iiunicious places on the
couise ol the Nai bada, and especiall> at spots where it is joined by
anothei iivei, aie groups ol temples, tended by Naimdco Brahmans,
the special piiests of the iivei, where annual gatherings of pilgums
take place. The most celebrated ot these are Bheiaghat, Baimhan,
and Onkai jMandhata in the Cential Piovmces, and BarwanI in Ccntial
India, where the Naibada is joined by the Kapila All ot these aie
connected by legends with saints and heioes of Hindu mytholog) ,
and the desciiption of the whole course ol the Narbada, and ol
all these places and their histoiy, is contained in a sacied i)ocin
of 14,000 veises (the Xannada Khandd)^ ^vhich, however, has been
adjudged to be of somewhat lecent origin Eveiy year 300 01
moie pilgiinis stait to perform the J>?adakshma of the Narbada, that
IS, to walk from its mouth at Broach to its source at Amaikantak
on one side, and back on the othei, a peifoimancc of the highest
leligious efficacy. The most sacied spots on the lowei course of the
iivei aie Suklatirtha, wheie stands an old banyan-tiee that beais
the name of the saint Kabli, and the site of Baja Bali’s hoise-sacnfice
near Bioach.

The Naibada is commonly consideied to foim the boundaiy between
Hindustan and the Deccan, the reckoning of the Hindu year differing
on either side of it. The Maiathas spoke of it as ‘the livci,’ and
consideied that when they had ciossed it they were in a foreign
countiy. Duimg the Mutiny the Narbada practically marked the
southern limit of the insuriection. Noith of it the British tempoiarily
lost control of the country, while to the south, in spite of isolated
distuibances, then authority was maintained. Hence, when, in 1858,
Taiitia Topi executed his daimg raid acioss the iivei, the utmost
appiehension was excited, as it was feaied that, on the appearance ol
the repiesentative of the Peshwa, the lecently annexed Nagpur terii-
tories would use in levolt. These fears, howevei, proved to be
unfounded and the countiy lemained tranquil.

Narcondam. — Volcanic island m the Andaman iSea, lying about
105 miles south-east of Port Blau See Andamans.

Naregal. — Town in the Ron idluka of Dharwar District, Bombay,
situated m 15® 34' N and 75® 48' E., 55 miles east of Dharwai
town. Population (1901), 8,327, Naregal is an old town, with
temples and insciiptions dating fiom the twelfth to the thirteenth
centiuy. ^Veekly maikets aie held on Monda)/. The town contains
a school.

378

NARGUND

Nargund. — Town in the Navalgund tdhika oi Dhaiwai Distiict,
Bombay, situated in 15° 43' N and 75° 24' E., 32 miles north-east
of Dharwar town Population (1901), 10,416. Nargund was con-
stituted a municipality in 1871, the average income during the decade
ending 1901 being Rs 5,000 In 1903-4 the income was Rs 7,700

Though not a manufacturing town, it is a busy entiepbt of tiade,

where the meichants of Dhaiwai and Noith Kanaia exchange nee,
sugai, spices, and other agiicultural pioducts Nargund was one
of the earliest possessions wiested from the feeble giasp of the
Muhammadan Sultans of Bijapur by Sivaji It was subsequent!}^
handed o\er to Ramrao Bhave with some surrounding villages. On
the conquest of the Peshwa’s territory by the British, it was restoied

by them to Dadaji Rao, -the chief then found in possession An

agreement was concluded with him, by which he was exempted
fiom the payment of his former tribute of Rs. 3,470, from nazardna
or presents on occasions, and fiom rendeiing service, on condition
of loyalty to, and dependence on, the British Government This
petty principality, containing 36 towns and villages, with a popu-
lation of about 25,000, was, at the time of the Mutmy in 1857,
held by Bhaskai Rao, alias Baba Sahib. Affected by the disturb-
ances in the north, the chief lose in open lebellion and murdeied
Mr Manson, the Commissioner and Political Agent, Southern Maiatha
Country A British force was dispatched at once to Nargund , and,
after a short but decisive engagement, the fort and town fell. The
fortifications have since been dismantled, and the foit has been len-
dered untenable by destroying some of the chief leseivoirs. Naigund
contains a large temple of Shankailmg and a smaller one of Dand-
eshwar, with an inscription dated 1147 , anothei temple, of Venkatesh,
on the hill-top in the fort, was built in 1720 An annual fair attended
by 10,000 people is held in honour of Venkatesh on the full moon of
Ashvin, and lasts for twelve days The town contains six schools,
including one for girls.

NarhL — Town m the District and tahnl of Ballia, United Pio-
vinces, situated in 25° 42' N and 84° 2' E., on the road fiom
Korantadih to Ballia town Population (1901), 6,462. Narhl is
merely an overgrown village, and its inhabitants have a bad reputa-
tion for harbouring ciiminals. They are chiefly Bhumhais, who
have lost their proprietary rights, but still refuse to pay lent to the
Dumiaon estate which has acquired them. There is a school with
42 pupils.

Nari. — River in Baluchistan, known also as the Anambar and the
Beji. It rises near Spiraragha and has a total length in Baluchi-
stan of about 300 miles The upper part of its course is known
as the Loialai river, and after the junction of the latter with the

narnAla

379

Sehan it becomes the Anambar. On passing into the Marri countiy
It is called the Beji. Near Babar Kach it is met from the north-west
by the Dada and Sangan sti earns, and shortly afterwards debouches
into the Kachhi plain, whence it branches into a number of channels
(28° 30' N , 67° 57' E ), eventually reaching Sind. Its laige catchment
aiea covers Loralai and Sibi Distncts and Kachhi, The Naii is
subject to very heavy floods Temporary embankments are erected
in Its bed to permit the cultivation of lands in Loralai District,
and a Government irrigation work to carry flood-water has also been
constructed. All the permanent water-supply is used at Sibi for culti-
vation ; and the central part of Kachhi depends entirely on its flood-
water, which is raised by ingeniously contiived temporary earthen
embankments of great size. Much of the summer flood-watei, however,
runs to waste.

Narkher, — Town in the Katol iahsil of Nagpur District, Central
Provinces, situated in 21° 29' N. and 78° 32' E, 45 miles north-west
of Nagpur city by road through Kalmeshwar and Sawargaon. Popu-
lation (1901), 7,726. Narkher is not a municipality, but a town
fund is raised for sanitary purposes. The population is almost
solely agricultural, and the lands surrounding the town are very
rich, the land revenue from the fiscal ‘village^ being the highest in
the District. A large cattle market is held weekly, and there is a
vernacular middle school.

Narmada. — River in Central and Western India. See Narbada,

Narnala. — Hill fortress in the Akot taluk of Akola District, Berar,
situated in 21° 15' N. and 77° 4' E , on the southernmost range of the
Satpura Hills, at an elevation of 3,161 feet. The hill was probably
fortified at an early date, for Firishta says that the fort was repaired
by the Bah mam king Ahmad Shah Wall, when he encamped at
Ellichpur from 1425 to 1428. The works comprise three distinct
forts : Jafarabad on the east, Namala itself in the centre, and Teliya-
garh on the west. There are six large and twenty-one small gates.
The system of water-supply in this fort was admirable, and portions
of an aqueduct and of drains for catching surface water still remain.
Within the walls aie situated nineteen tanks, of which only four
hold water throughout the year. Four very curious covered stone
cisterns are supposed, apparently on slender grounds, to have been
the work of Jams before the Muhammadan invasion. The Jama
Masjid, now in rums, is said to have borne an Arabic inscription
recording its construction m 1509 by Mahabat Khan, but this has
disappeared. A small mosque attributed to Aurangzeb is m good
repair. Other buildings are the Bdradan^ the Sarrdfkhdna^ the arsenal,
and the elephant stables. There are also the ruins of a palace erected
for RaghujI Bhonsla, and on Teliyagarh is a small mosque. The

VOL. xvni. B b

NARJSJALA

380

most interesting part of the fort is the inneimost of the three gate-
ways of the Shahnur entrance. It is built of white sandstone and
is highly ornate, being decorated with conventional lotus flowers,
a rich cornice, and Arabic inscriptions, and flanked by projecting
balconies with panels of stone lattice-work displaying considerable
variety of design. A short text from the Koran, used as a chrono-
gram, gives the date of the building of the gate as 1486, and the
date IS also expressed in words. A second inscription records the
fact that the gate was built m the reign of Shahab-ud-dln Mahmud
Shah (Bahmani), and contains an interesting though evidently inac-
curate account of that monarch’s descent In 1437, when Nasir
Khan, Sultan of Khandesh, invaded Berai, the Khan-i-Jahan, governor
of the province, who remained faithful to his master, the Bahmani
king Ala-ud-din Ahmad II, was besieged in Narnala by disaffected
nobles, but managed to break through the besieging force and joined
Khalaf Hasan before his victory at Rohankhed. Burhan Imad Shah,
the last of the independent kmgs of Berar, was confined in Narnala
by his minister Tufal Khan, and in 1572 Murtaza Nizam Shah of
Ahmadnagar laid siege to the fortress and captured both king and
minister, subsequently putting them to death. In 1597-8 the fort
was captured by Akbar’s officeis, Saiyid Yusuf Khan Mashhadi and
Shaikh Abul Fazl, from the officer who held it for the Sultan of
Ahmadnagar.

N^naul Tahsil. — Southern tahsil of the Mohindargarh nizdinat^
Patiala State, Punjab, lying between 27*^ 18' and 28^ 8' N. and 75° 58'
and 76° 17' E., with an area of 277 square miles. The population
in 1901 was 85,130, compared with 88,045 in 1891. The tahsil con-
tains the town of Narnaul (population, 19,489), the head-quarters,
and 157 villages The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted
to 2*3 lakhs.

Narnaul Town. — Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name in
the Mohindargarh mzdpiat, Patiala State, Punjab, situated in 28° 3' N.
and 76° 10' E, on the banks of the Chhalak Nadi, 37 miles from
Rewari, with which it is connected by the Rewari-Phulera branch of
the Rajputana-Malwa Railway. It is, next to Patiala, the most impor-
tant town in the State, havmg a population (1901) of 19,489. The
town is undoubtedly of some antiquity. Tradition assigns its founda-
tion to Raja Launkam, after whose wife Nar Laun it was named ; but
in the Mahabh^ata the country south of Delhi is called Narrashtra,
whence more probably is derived Narnaul. By the Muhammadan
historians it is first mentioned as assigned by Altamsh as a fief to his
Malik, Saif-ud-din j and in 1411 it was in the possession of Iklim Khan
and Bahadur Nahir, and plundered by Khizr Khan It claims to be
the birthplace of Sher Shah ; and Ibrahim Khan, his grandfather, died

NAJiOWAL

33i

here, his tomb still existing in the town. Sher Shah’s vassal, Haji
Khan, was expelled from Narnaul by the redoubtable Tardi Beg on
the restoration of Humayun ^ and, in the reign of Akbar, Shah Kuli
Mahram adorned the town with buildings and large tanks. Under
Aurangzeb, in 1672, Narnaul was the centre of a remarkable religious
revolt. A body of Satnamis, a sect who considered themselves im-
mortal, attacked the town, took it, and established a rude government.
They were eventually suppressed with gieat slaughter When the
Mughal power decayed, Narnaul became an apanage of Jaipur. In
1795 it was taken by Appa Khande Kao and George Thomas from
Lakwa Dada, an officer of De Boigne, and was afterwards given to
IMurtaza Khan Bahraich. In rewaid for his service m the Mutiny
of 1857, Maharaja Nanndar Singh of Patiala obtained the tldka of
Narnaul, valued at 2 lakhs annually The modern town has a consider-
able trade in cotton, ghi^ wool, and other products. It has also some
manufactures, lime and carts being the chief. It possesses a grain
market, an Anglo- vernacular middle school, a dispensary, and a police
station. Narnaul was constituted a municipality in 1906.

Narod (or Ranod). — Village in the Narwar district of Gwalior State?
Central India, situated in 25° 5' N. and 77° 53' E , on the Ahiravati or
Ahirpat Nala, a tributary of the Sind, 1,415 feet above the sea. Popu-
lation (1901), 2,985. The site is covered with Hindu and Muhammadan
remains, surrounded by fine groves of tamarind and mango. The most
remarkable building is a monastery, built in Hindu style of massive
sandstone blocks without mortar, and roofed with huge slabs of the
same material In the wall of this building, which is now called the
Kokai Mahal, is a long Sanskrit inscription referring to the erection
of the monastery. It mentions a king Avantivarman, and on palaeo-
graphical grounds may be assigned to the eleventh century. The
Muhammadan buildings are of modem date, but many are interesting,
especially the Zanjirl Masjid or ‘chain mosque,’ so called from its chain-
like railing, which was erected m Aurangzeb’s reign. Narod was
a place of importance until the Maratha invasion. It was granted
m the time of Jahangir to Chaudhri Chintaman Bakkal, whose
descendants still hold the sanad. During the Maratha inroads it
decreased in importance, and after it fell to Sindhia in the nine-
teenth century decayed rapidly. The village is enclosed by a high
wall pierced with four gates. It contains a school, a State post office,
and a police station.

[A. Cunningham, Archaeological Survey of India^ vol. ii, p. 303 ,
Eptgraphta Indica^ vol. vii, p. 35.]

Narowal. — Town in the Raya tahsil of Sialkot District, Punjab,
situated in 32° 5' N. and 74° 53' E, on the north bank of the Ravi,
35 miles south-east of Sialkot town. Population (1901), 4,422. The

B b 2

NAROWAL

3^2

name is derived from its founder Naru, a Bajwa Sansi, who is said to
have settled here four centuries ago. It was formerly the head-quarters
of what is now the Raya iahsil. The chief industry is the manufacture
of brass vessels, but native shoes of ornamental design are also made.
The Church Missionary and Zanana Missionary Societies established
here maintain an Anglo-vernacular middle school and a female hospital
and dispensaiy. The town also possesses an aided Punjabi Anglo-
vernacular middle school. Outside the town is a large church. The
municipality was created in 1867 The income and expenditure during
the ten yeais ending i902--3 averaged Rs. 4,500. In 1903-4 the
income was Rs. 5,500, chiefly from octioi, and the expenditure was
Rs. 5,400.

Narsapatam. — Subdivision and town m Vizagapatam District,
Madias. See Narasapatnam.

Narsapur. — Subdivision, taluk ^ and town in Kistna Distiict,
Madias See Narasapur.

Narsapur. — Former taluk in Nizamabad (Indur) District, Hyder-
abad State, with an area of 537 square miles. The population in 1901,
including jdglrSy was 52,056, compared with 52,443 m 1891. The
taluk contained 139 villages, of which 6 are jdgir ^ and Narsapur (1,773)
was its head-quarters. The land revenue in 1901 was 1*3 lakhs. In
1905 the taluk was divided between Niimal and a new taluk of Kinwat
in Adilabad District

Naxsinghgarh State. — A mediatized chiefship in Central India,
under the Bhopal Agency, lying between 23° 35' and 24° o' N. and 76°
20' and 77® 10' E , but its territories are much intermingled with those
of Rajgarh, total area, 741 square miles. It is situated in the section
of Malwa known as Umatwara, so called after the Umat clan of Rajputs
to which the chief of Narsinghgarh belongs It is bounded on the
north by the Indore, Khilchipur, and Rajgarh States, on the east by
Maksudangarh and Bhopal , on the west by Dewas and Gwalior , and
on the south by Bhopal and Gwalioi.

Narsinghgarh is closely allied to Rajgarh Both chiefs are descended
from DudajI, younger bi other of Udaji of Rajgarh, who acted as
minister to his brother. In 1661 Rawat Mohan Singh succeeded to
Rajgarh as a minor, the State being administered by his cousin Dlwan
Ajab Singh of the Dudawat branch, who was succeeded by his son
Paras Ram. This arrangement, however, gave rise to constant differ-
ences between the parties of the Dlwan and the Rawat, till in 1668 a
crisis occurred which resulted in a division of the State between the
two branches of the family. The partition was not at first completed
by definite delimitation of territory, a system of intermixed rule over
each village prevailing. Subsequently, in 1681, the territorial limits
were defined , and Paras Ram, on receiving his share, left Patan, his

NARSINGHGARH STATE 3^3

former residence, and founded the town and State of Narsinghgarh. In
the eighteenth century the chief succumbed to the Marathas, and was
obliged to make terms with Holkar and pay an annual sum of
Rs. 85,000 (Sd/im shdhi\ in order to preserve his independence. In
1818, on the settlement of Malwa by Sir John Malcolm, an agreement
was mediated between the Narsinghgaih chief and the rulers of Indore,
Dewas, and Gwalior, guaranteeing the regular payment of the sum due
to Holkar and the receipt of Rs. 1,200 as idnka (cash-grant) from
Sindhia, and of Rs. 5,102 from Dewas, in settlement of certain claims
on the Shujalpur and Sarangpur parganas. In 1819 Dlwan Subhag
Singh became imbecile, and the management of the State was entrusted
to his son Chain Singh, who, however, had a difference with the Political
Agent, attacked the British forces at Sehore, and was killed in the
engagement (1824) Subhag Singh, who had recovered his health, was
then again entrusted with the lule. He was- succeeded by Hanwant
Singh, who in 1872 received the hereditary title of Raja and a salute of
II guns. On his death in 1873, Holkar demanded payment of fmzardna
(succession dues) from his successor, Pratap Singh, but the claim was
not admitted by the British Government. In 1880 Pratap Singh
abolished transit dues on salt passing through the State, in lieu of
which a yearly cash payment of Rs 618-12 is made In 1884 he
abolished all transit duties, except those on opium, and made a con-
tiibution of Rs, 56,000 towards the construction of the Biaora-Sehoie
road. He was succeeded in 1 890 by his uncle Mahtab Singh, who died
childless and was followed, in 1896, by Arjun Singh, the present chief,
selected by the British Government from the Bhathkhera Thakur’s
family. He is being educated at the Mayo College at Ajmer, The
chief bears the titles of His Highness and Raja, and receives a salute
of II guns.

The population of the State was (1881) 112,427, (1891) 116,280,
and (1901) 92,093, giving a density of 124 persons per square mile.
During the last decade there was a decrease of 20 per cent , due to the
severity of the famine of 1899-1900. Hindus number 82,822, or
90 per cent. , Animists, 4,816, or 5 per cent , of whom nearly half are
Bhils , and Musalmans, 4,088, or 4 per cent. The State contains one
town, Narsinghgarh (population, 8,778), the capital, and 461 villages-
The Malwl dialect of Rajasthani is in common use The prevailing
castes are Rajputs (8,500), Chamars (7,000), Biahmans (5,000), and
Balais (4,800). Agriculture supports 45 per cent, of the population,
and general labour 8 per cent. The soil consists mostly of the fertile
black variety common to Malwa. The total area of 741 square miles,
of which 207 square miles, or 28 per cent, have been alienated in
jdgzrs^ is thus distributed cultivated, 272 square miles, or 37 per cent.,
of which 1 7 square miles are irrigated ; cultivable but uncultivated^

384

NARSINGETGAI^ir STATE

380 square miles, or 51 per cent ; forests, 2 square miles; and theiesl
waste. The principal crops are jowdr, occupying 141 square miles, or
57 per cent, of the cropped area, cotton 27 square miles, wheat 20,
maize 17, gram 14, and poppy 8.

The chief means of communication are the Agra-Bombay, the Biaora-
Sehore, the Pachor-Khujner, and the Shujalpur-Pachor roads, with a
total length of 55 miles metalled, of which 40 are kept up by the
British Government and the rest by the State. British combined post
and telegraph offices have been opened at Narsinghgarh and Pachor,
and branch post offices at Khujner and Chhapera.

For administrative purposes the State is divided into four tahslls, with
head-quarters at Narsinghgarh, Pachor, Khujner, and Chhapera, each
under a tahsilddr^ who is magistrate and collector of revenue. The
chief has full powers m all revenue, general, and civil judicial matters ,
in criminal jurisdiction his powers are those of a Sessions Court,
heinous cases being dealt with by the Political Agent.

The normal income is 5 lakhs, of which 3 3 lakhs is derived from
land, Rs. 36,000 from customs, Rs 5,000 from excise, and Rs. 12,000
from opium The expenditui e amounts to about 4 5 lakhs, the principal
heads being general administration (2-4 lakhs), chiefs establishment
(Rs. 12,700), and tribute (Rs. 58,600). Up to 1897, when the British
rupee was made legal tender, the Bhopal coinage was current. The
incidence of land revenue demand is Rs. 3-2 per acre of cultivated
land, and Rs. i~2 per acre of total area The State is the sole
proprietor of the land, villages being leased out to farmers who are
responsible for the assessed revenue of their holdings. The rates are
fixed according to the quality of the soil, a higher rate being levied on
irrigated land.

The army includes a regular force known as the Umat-Risala, a body
of 40 cavalry, who act as a body-guard to the chief, and also infantry.
The irregulars act as police messengers and the like There are 23
artillerymen with one serviceable gun.

The State contains 8 schools with 529 pupils, and the annual expen-
diture on education is Rs 3,000. In 1901, 3-5 per cent, of the
population, almost all males, were able to read and write. Four dis-
pensaries are maintained, at an annual cost of Rs. 4,400. Vaccination
is regularly earned out. Three surveys for revenue purposes have
been made — in 1865, 1885, and 1898. The last survey was a complete
plane-table survey, whereas the earlier surveys dealt only with cultivated
land.

Narsinghgarh Town.— Capital of the State of the same name in
Central India, situated in 23° 43' N. and 77° 6' E., 1,650 feet above
the sea, 44 miles from Sehore. Population (1901), 8,778. It was
founded by Paras Rto, first chief of Narsinghgarh, in 1681, on the site

NARSINGHPUR DISTRICT

385

of the village of Toplia Mahadeo. The town is most pictuiesquely
situated on the edge of an artificial lake, with a fort and palaces on the
heights above. A dispensary, a school, a jail, and Biitish combined
post and telegraph offices are situated in the town

Narsinghpur State. — One of the Tributary States of Orissa,
Bengal, lying between 20° 23' and 20° 37' N. and 84^^ 5' and
85° 17' E, with an area of 199 square miles It is bounded on the
north by a range of forest-clad mountains, which separate it from
Angul District and the State of Hindol ; on the east by Baramba;
on the south and south-west by the Mahanadi river, which divides it
fiom Khandpara and Daspalla , and on the west by Daspalla and
Angul District The State is reputed to have been founded 600 years
ago by a Rajput, named Dharma Singh, who conquered two Khond
chiefs named Narsingh and Poro. It has a revenue of Rs. 66,000, and
pays a tribute of Rs 1,450 to the Bntish Government. The population
increased from 33,849 in 1891 to 39,613 in 1901, the density being
199 persons per square mile. It contains 198 villages, the most
important of which is Kanpur. Of the total population, all but 150
are Hindus. The most numerous castes are Chasas (6,000) and
Pans (4,000). Narsinghpur is connected with Baramba by a road
wffiich is a continuation of that from Sankarpur in Dhenkanal Another
road leads to Angul, and one to Hindol is under construction. The
State maintains a middle vernacular, an upper primaiy, and 36 lower
primary schools, and a charitable dispensary.

Narsinghpur District. — District in the Nerbudda Division of the
Central Provinces, lying betw^een 22° 37' and 23° 15' N. and 78° 27'
and 79® 38' E., m the upper half of the Narbada Valley, with an area
of 1,976 square miles. On the north it is bounded by the Bhopal
State and by Saugor, Damoh, and Jubbulpore Distncts , on the south
by Chhmdwara ; on the west by Hoshangabad ; and on the east by
SeonI and Jubbulpore. Nearly the whole District lies to the south of
the Narbada, occupying a stretch of 15 or 20 miles
between the river and the northern range of the Satpui a aSects ^
plateau. The Narbada forms the northern boundary
for a considerable length, and immediately beyond the river the
southern scarp of the Vindhyan range extends like a line of cliffs
almost along its banks A small strip of territory lies to the north of
the Narbada. On the south of the District a broad belt of gravelly
soil merges through woody borders into the lower slopes of the Satpura
highlands. The hilly country itself is generally not more than three or
four miles in width. Between the Satpuras and the Narbada lies the
greater part of the District, in the first of the wide alluvial basins
which, alternating with rocky gorges, give so varied a character to the
river’s course. The surface of the valley is covered by a deep layer

3S6

NARSINGHPUR DISTRICT

of black alluvial soil, which is famed for its fertility. The general
elevation is about i,ioo feet above the sea, the fall in the course of the
Narbada within the District being very slight. During its passage
through Narsinghpur the Naibada receives the waters of several
tributaries, principally from the south. Of these, the most important
are the Sher and the Shakkar, with their respective affluents, the
Macharewa and Chitarewa. Other smaller rivers are the Dudhi and
Soner, which form the western and eastern boundaiies of the District,
and the Barurewa All these lise in the Satpura range on the southern
border, and though their courses are short they fill with extraordinary
rapidity. The passage of these streams through the soft alluvial soil
produces a wide series of ravines on either bank, rendering the giound
for some distance uncultivable, the most marked systems of ravines
being on the Narbada and Sher. The Hiran and Sindhor rivers join
the Narbada from the north.

The valley in the north of the District is covered with alluvium.
The hilly country in the south is occupied by rocks referable partly
to the Gondwana and partly to the transition system.

The forests are not extensive, and aie situated principally on the
slopes of the Satpuras along the south of the District, with a few
patches on the noithern border beyond the Narbada. The principal
tree, even in the forests, is the mahud {Bassia latifolid) \ and the rest
is mamly a scrubby growth of small teak, achdr (Biichanania /aU/o/ta),
daman {Grewta iiliaefolia\ sdlai {JBosivelha serrafa\ palds {Butea
frondosa), and similar shrubs and stunted trees. The open country is
well provided with mahud and other fruit-bearing or sacred trees.

Tigers are not numerous. Leopards and bears frequent the low
hills. Sdmbar and nilgai are met with m most of the forests, but
spotted deer are scarce. Bison sometimes visit the south-western hills
in the rainy months. The forests are singularly devoid of bird life.
Quail are plentiful in certain tracts, as also aie peafowl and sand-
grouse ; but there are very few water-birds.

The climate is generally healthy and very pleasant in the cold
season. The annual rainfall averages 51 inches, and is moie usually
excessive than deficient, wheat on the heavy black soil being veiy
liable to rust. Frosts sometimes occur m the cold season, but hail
IS rare.

At the eailiest period at which anything is known of its history,
Narsinghpur formed part of the dominions of the Mandla Gond
History dynasty. The stronghold of Chauragarh, twenty
miles south-west of Narsinghpur town, on the crest
of the outer range of the Satpura table-land, is intimately associated
with the history of the Mandla kings. Embracing two hills within its
circle of defences, it is less a fort than a huge fortified camp ; and the

HISTORY

3^7

vast scale of the whole "work, its numerous tanks and wells excavated
at so unusual an elevation, and the massive d^bns of the buildings,
attest the lavish outlay incurred in its completion, and the importance
which was attached to it as a royal stronghold. In 15^4 Asaf Khan,
a Mughal general, invaded the Mandla territories, defeated the Rani
Durgavati, widow of the Gond Raja Dalpat Shah, and took by storm
Chauragarh, finding, it is said, 100 jars of gold com and 1,000
elephants. Three generations later, in the time of Raja Prem
Naiayan, the Bundela prince of Orchha invaded the valley and took
Chauragarh aftei a siege of some months, Prem Narayan being
killed by treachery Rani Durgavati and Prem Narayan are still
celebrated in folk-lore. In 1781 the Gond dynasty was finally over-
thrown and the valley came under the rule of the Maratha Subahs of
Saugor, who were displaced by the Bhonslas fifteen years later. In
November, 1817, intelligence of the disturbances at Nagpur

and the treachery of Raja Appa Sahib, British troops w’ere moved into
Narsinghpur and the Maratha garrison at Srinagar was defeated. The
fort at Chauragarh held out for some time, but was evacuated in
May, 1818. The District subsequently came under British administra-
tion, and was augmented in 1826 by the temporary cession by Smdhia
of the trans-Narbada parga?ias of Chanwarpatha and Tendukheda,
which finally became British territory in i860 Since 1818 the
tranquillity of the District has been twice disturbed. During the
Bundela rising of 1842 the rebels invaded Narsinghpur, receiving
the tacit support of nearly all the landholders of Chanw^arpatha, and
plundered several villages, but w^eie finally defeated and forced to
lecross the Narbada In 1857 the Saugor and Bhopal mutineers
entered Chanwarpatha on two occasions, and made isolated forays
across the Narbada. Except from two or three landholders in Chan-
w’arpatha *they met mih no support, and were stubbornly resisted at
Tendukheda, and by Rao Surat Singh LodhI at his village of Imjhira.
The Deputy-Commissioner, Captain Ternan, took the field with two
compames of irregular troops and some matchlockmen furnished by
the Gond chiefs, and drove out the rebels. It is w^orth noticing that
this officer had as early as February, 1857, submitted a report on the
circulation of the chapdtis^ stating his belief that they poi tended an
insurrection, but his warning was disregarded.

There are few archaeological remains of interest. Barehta, 14 miles
south-east of Narsinghpur town, formerly contained a number of
sculptures, some of which have been brought to Narsmghpur and
placed m the public gardens, while other sculptures are believed to
have been taken to Europe, and little remains at Barehta itself An
important place of pilgrimage in the District is Barmhan at the
junction of the Narbada and Warahi rivers, while there are numerous

388

NARSINGHPUR DISTRICT

temples and flights of stone steps leading up to the north bank of the
liver. Dhilwar and Chanwarpatha contain the rums of Gond forts.

The population of the District at the last thiee enumerations was
as follows: (1881)365,173, (1891)367,026, and (1901) 313,951. A
small transfer of territory to Narsinghpur from Saugor
Population. made in 1902, and the corrected totals of area

and population are now 1,976 square miles and 315,518 persons.
Between 1881 and 1891 the population was nearly stationary. In the
last mtercensal period the decrease was at the rate of 14 per cent
Deaths exceeded births m six years of the decade, and the Distiict
was seveiely affected by the famines of both 1897 and 1900. The
District has three towns, Narsinghpur, Gadarwara, and Chhind-
wara; and 963 inhabited villages The followmg statistics of popu-
lation in 1901 have been adjusted on account of the transfer
mentioned above . —

TahsU

Area m square
miles

Number of

Population.

Population per
squat e mile

Percentage of
variation in
population be-
tween 1891
and 1901

Number of
persons able to
read and
write

Villages

Narsinghpur

1,106

533

150,305

136

- 140

7.291

Gadarwaia

870

430

190

-14.9

7,660

District total

1,976

963

315.518

160

About 85 per cent, of the population are Hindus, ro per cent.
Animists, and nearly 4 per cent. Muhammadans. Practically the
whole population speak the Bundeli dialect of Western Hindi, the
Gonds having almost entirely abandoned their own language.
Marathi, Uidu, and Gondi are spoken by a few hundred persons
each.

The principal landholding castes are Brahmans (24,000), Rajputs
(14,000), Banias (9,000), Kurmis (7,000), Lodhis (30,000), Kaonras
(14,000), and Raj Gonds. Biahmans belong principally to Northern
India, but there are also some Maratha Brahman landlords, who
generally bear the title of Pandit The Golapurabs form a local sub-
caste of Brahmans, who have been settled in the Distnct for a long
time and are solely cultivators , they neither beg nor perform priestly
functions Most of the Rajputs belong to a local sub-caste called
Gorai, and are of mixed descent. The principal cultivating castes
are Lodhis, Kurmis, and Kaonras The Kaonras profess to be
descended from the Kauravas of the Mahabharata, who after being
defeated by the Pandavas came and settled m Narsinghpur. They
are certainly not Rajputs, and there is some reason for supposing them

AGRICULTURE

3S9

to be a branch of the Ahirs. The labouring classes are Chamars
(17,000) and Mehras (15,000), who together form about 10 per cent,
of the population, and Gonds, who number 35,000, or ii per cent.
These are all in very poor circumstances The Gonds are compara-
tively civilized, but live from hand to mouth. Many of them have
only a garden plot for spade cultivation, or a small holding of the
poorest soil They depend largely on mahud flowers and other forest
produce, and on the sale of head-loads of grass and fuel About
62 per cent, of the population were returned as supported by
agriculture in 1901

Of the 359 Christians, 66 belong to the Anglican communion and
267 are Methodists. Native Christians number 319. The Haidwicke
American Methodist Episcopal Mission has a station at Narsinghpur.

The greater part of the cultivated area consists of black alluvial soil.
The quality varies according to the lie of the land, ground which is
undulating or cut up by ravines being the poorest
Below the Satpura Hills there is a belt of light sandy
soil suited to the growth of rice A somewhat peculiar system followed
m the hill country is that of sowing several of the autumn crops
together, such mixtures as kodon^ jowdr, and cotton, til and arhar^ or
net, jowdr^ and arhar, with tirad or mung as a fourth ingredient in
each case, being found in the same field. The cultivators hope that
in such cases they will get a good return from one or two of the
crops whatever the nature of the season may be, but such a hetero-
geneous mixture can scarcely be considered good agriculture. In
recent years there have been heavy decreases in the acreage of wheat,
gram, and kodon, partly counterbalanced by a rise in those of masur,
rice, and cotton.

More than 45 square miles are held wholly or partially free of
revenue, and the remainder on the ordinary indlguzdri tenure The
following table gives the principal agricultural statistics for 1903-4, in
square miles : —

Tahsil

Total

Cultivated

Irrigated

Cultivable

waste.

Forests

Narsinghpur

1,106

489

314

186

Gadarwara

870

5'5

265

Total

1.976

1,004

.'^79

249

No considerable extension of cultivation is now possible Wheat,
either sown singly or mixed with gram, covers 318 square miles, or
27 per cent, of the cropped area, gram, 176 square miles; til, 78;
rice, 54 ; jowdr, 33 , and cotton, 50. The small millet kodon is mainly
grown as a food-crop in the hilly tracts by Gond cultivators, and is not

390

NARSINGHPUR DISTRICT

exported. Only 7,000 acres are occupied by linseed. It is peculiarly
liable to rust, and is therefore not a popular crop for heavy black soil,
but the area under it was larger a few years ago than at present. The
cultivation of cotton has recently increased It is grown on the light
soil along the banks of the Narbada or mixed with other crops, and
the out-turn is usually poor. Rice is raised mainly as a catch-crop
in embanked fields before gram, or as a mixture with other crops.

The principal agricultural improvement is the embankment of wheat-
fields to hold up water during the lams. This, however, is practised
only in the eastern part of the District adjoining Jubbulpore, and the
anticipation that it would gradually extend to the remaining area has
not been fulfilled Only about 2,500 acies were regularly embanked
in 1893, but since then up to 1905 embankments have been const! ucted
on an additional 13,000 acres. In places where the surface is sloping
the field cannot be embanked on all sides, but a bank is run across
the lower end to prevent scouring. About 78 square miles have small
embankments of this type, 01 dandhtds. During the eleven 5 ears
following 1893 only Rs. 17,000 was advanced under the Land Improve-
ment Loans Act, and 1-9 lakhs under the Agriculturists’ Loans Act.

Cattle are bred in the District, and are also imported from Chhind-
wara, Nimar, Hoshangabad, and Saugor. The Narsinghpur cattle
have no particular reputation. They are slow, but have the strength
which IS requisite for cultivation in the heavy black soil. The number
of cattle was greatly reduced by mortality in the famines. Buffaloes
are kept for breeding purposes and for the manufacture of ghl. There
were formerly a considerable number of horses in the District ; but
the impoverishment of many landowners and the construction of good
roads have rendered horse-breeding too expensive, and to a great extent
destroyed the taste for it, the people generally preferring a bullock-
cart to a horse, when the former method of locomotion is practicable

Only about 2,000 to 2,500 acies are irrigated. Irrigation is almost
entirely from wells, and is practically confined to sugar-cane and
garden crops. There are about 1,100 irrigation wells.

The area of Government forest is 249 square miles, all of which
is ‘reserved.’ The principal forests are on the Satpura range m the
south of the District, and there aie small patches north of the Narbada
on the Vmdhyan range. Teak, sdj {Tenninalia tomenfosa), khatr
{Acacia Catechu\ and bamboos are the principal trees. The revenue
in 1903-4 was Rs. 20,000.

The coal-mines situated at Mohpani, twelve miles from Gadarwara
at the foot of the Satpura Hills, are served by a branch line of railway.
They have been worked since 1862, and the opening out of some fresh
seams has recently been undertaken. The annual out-turn is now
about 43,000 tons. The coal is of moderate quality. In 1904 the

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS 391

mines were sold by the Nerbudda Coal and Iron Company to the
Great Indian Peninsula Railway. Coal is also found in small quantities
in the Sher and Shakkai rivers. There are iron mines at Tendukheda
on the north of the Narbada close to the base of the Vmdhyan range,
but they are worked only by native miners, or Lohars About 150
large and 70 small furnaces were working m 1895 , but the returns for
1904 show only 8, and the industry is now nearly extinct, though the
iron has a local reputation. The mines are mere open pits cut to
the depth of about 30 feet through the black soil and underlying clay,
and have to be re-excavated annually after the rainy season Copper
ores occur at Barmhan They were worked for a time, and the band
of rock in which they he was found to be 6 feet thick, while the average
yield of copper from some ores was 28 per cent.

Hand-weaving and dyeing were formerly carried on to a considerable

extent, but the industries are suffering from the competition of machine-

made cloth. Gadarwara is the most important centre,

while Smghpur and Amgaon have also considerable Trade and

communications.

numbers of looms and dye-houses and Narsinghpur
a few. Indigo is used in combination with other agents to produce
the dark-green cloth called amohwd, padded coats of which are largely
worn in the cold season. Chichli has an industry of bi ass-workers,
and brass vessels are also imported from Jubbulpore and Poona. Glass
bangles are made at Nayakheda and Barha, and rude glass bottles for
holding the sacred water of the Narbada at Barmhan. A few Muham-
madan butchers have settled at Gadarwara and prepare dried meat.
A ginning factory has lately been opened at Gadarwara by a private
company, and another at Chhindwara.

Wheat has hitherto been the staple product of Narsinghpur District,
forming about 50 per cent, of the total exports. Oilseeds, gram, and
other grams are also exported to a less extent. Ghl is sent to Calcutta
and Bombay, and hides and bones to Bombay. The exports of forest
produce from Narsinghpur are not considerable, but those of the
adjoining tracts of Chhindwara are brought to Babai station. The
imports are principally cotton piece-goods, salt, sugar, kerosene oil,
tobacco, and articles of hardware. Rice is imported by road from
Seom and Chhindwara, salt comes from Guj’arat, and gur or unre-
fined cane-sugar from Lucknow and Patna Three annual fairs aie
held — at Barmhan, Barehta, and Sankal. A large amount of traffic
in household and other commodities takes place at the Barmhan fair.

The Jubbulpore line of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway passes
through the centre of the District from west to east, having a length
of 75 miles and 8 stations within its limits. There is also a branch
line of 12 miles from Gadarwara to the Mohpani coal-mines. The
feeder roads to Gadarwara, Kareli, Chhindwara, and Narsinghpur are

392

NARSINGHFUR DISTRICT

the most important trade-routes. Previous to the opening of the
railway to Saugor, Kareli was a place of considerable importance, as
It was the station for Saugor, with which it is connected by a metalled
road crossing the Narbada at Barmhan. It now only retains the tiade
of the southern part of the Rehli tahsil and the centre of Narsinghpur.
A metalled road is projected from Narsinghpur town to Lakhnadon
m SeonI District, and has been constructed foi 1 7 miles ; but it passes
through poor country and there is not much traffic on it. The old
road from Jubbulpore to Bombay runs through the District, but as
It adjoins and is parallel to the railway, it is no longer of any impor-
tance. The length of metalled roads in the District is 79 miles, and
of unmetalled roads 135 miles. The expenditure on maintenance in
i903”4 was Rs. 33,000 The Public Works department maintains
94 miles of the more important roads and the District council the
remainder. There are avenues of trees on 1 1 7 miles.

The earliest scarcities of which accounts are available resulted rather

from political disturbances than climatic causes. War and its effects

_ . caused distress in the upper Narbada Valley during

Famine. o j o t

the years 1771, 1783, and 1809. It is recorded that

in 1771 wheat sold in Narsinghpur at 5 seers to the rupee. In 1832-3
severe distress occurred, owing to a pooi harvest caused by excessive,
followed by deficient, rain. The failure of 1868-9 was not severe in
Narsinghpur. In 1894 and 1895 the spring crops were spoilt by
excessive winter ram. A little relief was given by opening works in
1895, and the forests were thrown open. In 1895 the rains stopped
prematurely and the harvest was only 60 per cent, of normal. This
was followed by a total failure of the crops in 1896-7. Famine
prevailed throughout the year 1897, when 59,000 persons, or 16 per-
cent. of the population, were on relief in June. The total expenditure
was 10 lakhs, the principal form of relief consisting of road works.
In 1899-1900 two-fifths of a normal crop were obtained, and the
District was not severely distressed. The expenditure was 1-5 lakhs,
and some useful work was done in the eradication of kdns grass
{Saccharum spontaneum) and the construction of field embankments.

The Deputy-Commissioner is aided by three Assistant or Extra-
Assistant Commissioners. For administrative purposes the Distnct

Administration divided into two tahsils, each of which has a
tahsilddr and a naih-tahslJddr, The Forest officer
usually belongs to the Provincial Service.

The civil judicial staff consists of a District and a Subordinate
Judge, and a Munsif at each tahsil The Divisional and Sessions
Judge of the Nerbudda Division has jurisdiction in Narsinghpur, The
crime of the District, which was serious a few years ago, is now petty.
Civil work is very heavy, and the people are noted for their fondness

ADMINISTRA TION

393

for litigation. Suits between landlord and tenant and mortgage suits
furnish the largest number of cases.

Under the Maratha revenue system, villages were let out to the
highest bidder, and any rights or consideration which the village
headmen may have enjoyed in the past were almost entiiely effaced.
No legal status was given to tenants, and the older cultivators were
protected only by the custom that, so long as the annual rent demanded
was paid, their tenure was hereditary and continuous. During the
period of Maratha rule the District was severely rack-rented, every
possible device of illegal exaction being employed to raise money ; but
the effect of this oppressive administration was laigely counterbalanced
by the fact that the considerable garrisons maintained at Srinagar and
Chauragarh and the court of the local governor afforded a ready
market for produce. These facts were disregarded when the District
first came under British administration, and in consequence the
attempts made to collect the nominal demand under the Marathas
proved a disastrous failure. The annual demand at cession was 6 67
lakhs, and twenty years afterwards it had fallen to 4 lakhs. In 1836
a twenty years’ settlement was concluded, and the revenue fixed at
3-47 lakhs. The next revision was delayed for some years owing to
the Mutiny, and was completed in 1864 by Mr. (Sir Charles) Grant,
'whose settlement report is one of the most interesting publications
relating to the Central Provinces. The revenue was raised to 4 22
lakhs, an increase of 27 per cent, the settlement being made for thirty
years. During its currency Narsinghpur, like other Districts at this
period, prospered greatly The cropped area increased by loj per
cent., and there was a rise of 60 per cent in the price of grain A
new settlement was concluded m 1894, at which the demand was
raised to 6-42 lakhs, or by 50 per cent. Some temporary remissions
of land revenue have been made since the famines, in consequence
of the agricultural deterioration which resulted from them. The tei m
of the revised settlement varies from fifteen to seventeen years, a shorter
period than the one now generally prescribed of twenty years having
been adopted, in order to produce a legular rotation of Distiict settle-
ments. The average incidence of revenue per acre of cultivation was
R. o-i5“3 (maximum Rs. r-6-8, minimum R. 0-8-6), while that of
the rental was Rs. 1-1T-7 (maximum Rs. 2-13, minimum R. 0-14-3).

Collections on account of land revenue and revenue from all
sources are shown below, m thousands of rupees : —

1880-1

1890-1,

1900-1

1903-4.

Land revenue

4,22

4,21

7,01

6,33

Total revenue .

6,39

7.34

9.46

8,48

394

NARSINGHPUR DISTRICT

Local affairs, outside municipal areas, are managed by a District
council and two local boards each having jurisdiction over one tahsiL
The income of the District council in 1903-4 was Rs. 78,000. The
expenditure was mainly on public works (Rs. 25,000) and education
(Rs. 30,000). Narsinghpur, Chhindwara, and Gabarwara are
municipal towns.

The foice under the District Superintendent of police consists of
339 officers and men, including 3 mounted constables, besides 1,032
village w^atchmen for 966 inhabited towns and villages. Narsmghpui
town has a District jail, with accommodation for 170 prisoners,
including 13 females. The daily aveiage number of prisoners in
1904 was 89.

In respect of education the District occupies the fourth position
in the Province, nearly 5 per cent, of the population (9*4 males and
0*3 females) being able to read and write. The proportion of children
under instruction to those of school-going age is 13 per cent. Statistics
of the numbei of pupils are as follows. (1880-1) 4,334, (1890-1)
6,062; (1900-1) 5,926, and (1903-4) 6,110, including 554 girls.
The educational institutions comprise two English and six vernacular
middle schools, and 93 primary schools. The expenditure on educa-
tion in 1903-4 was Rs. 49,000, of which Rs. 43,000 was denved from
Provincial and Local funds and Rs. 4,000 from fees.

The District has 7 dispensaries, with accommodation for 98 in-
patients. In 1904 the number of cases treated was 50,813, of whom
571 were m-patients, and 1,879 operations were performed The
expenditure was Rs. 10,000, of which the greater part was provided
from Provincial and Local funds.

Vaccination is compulsory only in the municipal towns of Narsingh-
pur, Gadaiwara, and Chhindwara. The number of persons successfully
vaccinated in 1903-4 was 59 per r,ooo of the District population,
a high proportion.

[C. Grant, Settlemefit Report (1866), E. A. De Brett, Settlement
Report (1895) , R. V. Russell, District Gazetteer (1906).]

Narsinghpur Tahsil. — Eastern iahsll of Narsinghpur Distiict,
Central Provinces, lying between 22° 37' and 23° 13' N. and 79° i' and
79*^ 38' E., with ah area of 1,106 square miles The population in 1901
was 148,738, compared with 172,801 in 1891. In 1902, ii villages
were transferred to the tahsil from Saugor District, and the adjusted
population is 150,305 The density is 136 persons per square mile
The tahsil contains two towns, Narsinghpur (population, 11,233),
the head-quarters of the tahsil and District, and Chhindwara (4,216) ;
and 533 inhabited villages. Excluding 186 square miles of Govern-
ment forest, 6 1 per cent, of the available area is occupied for cultivation
The cultivated area in 1903-4 was 489 square miles. The demand

NARWAL

395

for land revenue in the same year was Rs. 3,31,000, and for cesses
Rs 31,000. The taksil consists roughly of a belt of land near the
Narbada river, where the soil has been impoverished by the action
of drainage and much cut up into ravines; a rich black-soil tract
behind this, and then some sandy and stony land leading up to the
Satpura Hills on the south.

Narsinghpur Town. — Head-quarters of the District and tahsll of
the same name, Central Provinces, situated in 22°57'N. and 79° 13' E,,
on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway to Jubbulpore, 564 miles from
Bombay. Population (1901), 11,233. was formerly called Chhota-
Gadarwara, and the name of Narsinghpur was given when a temple of
Narsingh (the man-lion incarnation of Vishnu) was erected about 100
years ago. Narsinghpur proper stands on the west bank of the small
river Singrl , and the houses on the eastern bank are really situated in
a separate town called Kandell, but are included within the munici-
pality of Narsinghpur. The Singri, though of absolutely insignificant
size, is liable to sudden floods; and in 1891 it submerged the town
and civil station, and washed away numerous houses, though the
exertions of the civil officers prevented any loss of life It has been
dammed to afford a water-supply to the town. Narsinghpur was
created a municipality in 1867. The municipal receipts during the
decade ending 1901 averaged Rs. 15,000. In 1903-4 they were
Rs. 17,000, mainly derived from octioi, but including a grant of
Rs 4,000 from Provincial funds for education. With the exception
of the export of timber from the Chhmdwara forests, there has not
hitherto been much trade at Narsinghpur, the adjoining station of
Karel! being a more important centre But since the openmg of the
railway to Saugor, Karel! has been diminishing and Narsinghpur
increasing in importance. Hand-weaving and dyeing and book-binding
are among the local handicrafts. The town contains a printing press
with Hmdi and English type, which issues three monthly vernacular
periodicals. It has an English middle and other schools, and three
dispensaries. A mission station of the American Methodist Episcopal
Church has been established here.

Narsipur . — Taluk and town in Hassan District, Mysore. See
Hole-Narsipur.

Narsipur . — Taluk of Mysore District, Mysore. See Tirumakudal-
Narsipur.

Narukot. — Petty State in Rewa Kantha, Bombay.

Narwal. — Eastern iahsll of Cawnpoie District, United Provinces,
conterminous with the pargana of the same name, formerly called
Sarh Salempur. It lies south-west of the Ganges, between 26° 8'' and
26° 25' N. and 80° 14' and 80° 34' E, with an area of 218 squaie
miles. Population fell from 98,784 in 1891 to 92,860 in 1901, the

VOL. XVIII. c c

39 ^

NAHWAL

decrease being greater than in any other talisii m the District. There
are 170 villages and one town, Naiwal (population, 2,214), the
tah'il head-quarters The demand for land revenue m 1903-4 was
Rs 2,20,000, and for cesses Rs 35,000. The density of population,
426 persons per square mile, is below the District average. From the
banks of the Ganges rises a high cliff of poor soil , but the land is moi e
fertile in the centie of the ta/isll, which is drained by the Pandu,
and in the south, wheie the Rind flows through a well-cultivated area.
In 1903-4 the aiea under cultivation was ri6 square miles, of which
45 were irrigated. Wells supply two- thirds of the iingated area, and
the Cawnpore and Fatehpur branches of the Lowei Ganges Canal
most of the lemamder.

Narwana. — Southern ta/tsil of the Karmgarh mzdmaf, Patiala
State, Punjab, lying between 29® 23' and 29® 51' N and 75® 58' and
76° 27' E,, in the Bangar south of the Ghaggar river, with an area of
575 squaie miles. The population in 1901 was 117,604, compared
with 108,913 m 1891. It contains 133 villages, of which Narwana is
the head-quarters. The land revenue and cesses m 1903-4 amounted
to 1-8 lakhs.

Narwar Zila, — A district m the Gwalior State, Central India, lying
between 24° 32' and 25® 54' N. and 77® 22' and 78° 32' E , with an
area of 4,041 square miles. The greater part is cut up by a succession
of jungle-covered ridges which strike from north-east to south-west
across the district, but the portion west of the arm of the Vmdhyan
range lying in the east is a level plain The soil of the valleys is of
considerable fertility, being formed of detritus washed off the hills
To the east, round Karera village, the soil is of the rocky and poor
class common to the gneiss area. The chief rivers are the Smd,
Parbati, and Betwa, while of smaller streams the Kunu, Lesser Parbati,
Ahir, and Mahuar are the most important. The population in 1901
was 398,361, giving a density of 13 1 persons per square mile. The
district contains two towns, Chanderi (population, 4,093) and Nar-
WAR (4,929), and 1,298 villages. The head-quarters are at SIpri
It IS divided into four pargams, with head-quarters at Sipri, Pichor,
Kolaras, and Karera. The land revenue is Rs 6,58,000.

Narwar Town, — Town in the district of the same name in Gwalior
State, Central India, situated in 25® 39' N. and 77° 54' E. Population
(1901), 4,929. The place is traditionally supposed to be the home of
Raja Nala of Naishadha, whose romantic love for DamayantI, related
in the Mahabharata, is familiar to every Hindu. Cunningham identi-
fied Narwar with Padmavatl, which, according to the Puranas, was one
of the cities held by the nine Nagas. Coins bearing the name of
Ganapati, who is mentioned as a Naga king m Samudra Gupta’s
inscription at Allahabad, have been found here. The history of

lVAJ^JFAJ^ town

397

Narwar has always been closely connected with that of Gwalior. In
the middle of the tenth century both places fell to the Kachwaha
Rajputs. These weie succeeded by Parihars m 1129, who held pos-
session until 1232, when they were expelled by Altamsh The next
mention of the fort is in 1251, when it was in the hands of Chahada
Deva, who surrendered it to Nasir-ud-dm. After the invasion of
Timur, Narwar fell to the Tonwars, who held it until 1507, when it was
taken, after a twelvemonth’s siege, by Sikandar Lodi. This ruler gave
the fort to Raj Singh, a Kachwaha, thus restoiing the fortress to its
original owners. Under Akbar it was the head-quarters of the Narwar
sarkdr of the Subah of Malwa, and Abul Fazl writes of ancient Hindu
temples still standing in a part of the foit. Except for a temporary
loss of possession in the time of Shah Jahan, the Kachwahas held
Narwar a: feudatories of Delhi up to the nineteenth century, when
It was taken by Sindhia, to whom it was finally guaranteed by the
Allahabad treaty of 1805.

The old fort is picturesquely situated on the steep scarp of the
Vindhyas, 400 feet above the plain, and r,6oo above the level of the
sea The walls have a circuit of above 5 miles, and to the north lies
a further portion enclosed by high walls, containing the shrine of Shah
Madar, a Muhammadan saint. A gentle ascent leads to the Alamglri
Darwaza, from which a steep flight of steps gives access to the summit
through three more gateways. The fort is purely Muhammadan in
character, but the numerous fragments of sculpture and architectuial
ornament show that in the flourishing days of Hindu sovereignty it
was probably second only to Gwalior in the magnificence of its temples
and other edifices Sikandar Lodi remained here for six months,
breaking down temples and building mosques, and effectually removed
any edifices of importance Among Hindu relics of later days is a gun
which belonged to Sawai Jai Singh of Jaipur, bearing the date 1696.
A small Roman Catholic cemetery in the fort contains a chapel and
several tombs, one of which is dated 1747. This was no doubt the
burial-place of the European gunners so frequently employed in native
armies during the eighteenth century.

The town lies at the north-eastern foot of the hill on w^hich the fort
stands, near a bend m the Sind river, and is enclosed by a wall wuth
three gates. Once a flourishing place on a route between Delhi and
the Deccan, it has decayed rapidly since the construction of new roads
and raihvays has cairied traffic elsewhere. Just outside the walls
stands a pillar on which are inscribed the names of the Tonwar chiefs
of Narwar, a large baorl^ and two fine Muhammadan bndges over
the Sind. A curious sail stone recalls the memory of two wives of a
family priest to Raja Gaja Singh who, on hearing of their husband's
death in a battle m the Deccan, burned themselves together with his

c c 2

39 ^

NARWAR TOWN

scarf Narwai formerly produced a considerable quantity of crude
iron, smelted from the magnetic iron ore abounding in the neighbour-
hood , but this industry has now decayed. A State post office, a school,
a dispensary, and a police station are situated here.

Narwar State (i). — Mediatized chiefship in the Gwalior Residency,
Central India See Paron.

Narwar State (2). — Thakurdt in the Malwa Agency, Central
India.

Nasarpur, — Town m the Tando Alahyai tdluka of Hyderabad
Distnct, Sind, Bombay, situated m 25° 31^ N. and 68° 39' E. Popu-
lation (1901), 4,511. Nasarpur was formerly famous for its weaving
industries, and cotton goods aie still manufactured m some quantity
on hand-looms ; but the trade of the place is insignificant. The town
IS of very ancient date, and is said to have been built in a.d. 989. The
municipality was constituted in i860, and had an average income of
about Rs. 6,000 during the decade ending 1901 In 1903-4 the
income was Rs. 6,000. The town contains a courthouse, a dispensary,
and a boys’ school.

Nasik Agency, The. — This consists of a single petty State lying
in the north-west corner of Nasik District, Bombay. See Surgana

Nasik District {Nasica of Ptolemy) — District in the Central Divi-
sion of the Bombay Presidency, lying between 19° 35' and 20° 53' N.
and 73° 15' and 74° 56' E., with an area of 5,850 square miles. It
is bounded on the north and north-east by the District of Khandesh ,
on the south-east by the Nizam’s Dominions , on the south by Ahmad-
nagar , and on the west by Thana District, the territories of Dhaiampur,
Surgana, and the Dangs.

With the exception of a few villages m the west, the whole District
IS situated on a table-land at an elevation of from 1,300 to 2,000 feet
above the sea. The western portion, from north
to south, called Dang, is generally much divided
by hills and intersected by ravines, and only the
simplest kind of cultivation is possible The eastern portion, called
Desh, is open, fertile, and well cultivated Except the line of the
AVestern Ghats, which run north and south, the general direction of
the hills IS from west to east, the higher portions being m the west
The Satmala or Chandor range of hills forms the watershed of the
Distnct, dividing the valley of the Girna from that of the Goda-
vari. It stretches from Peint east into the Nizam’s Dominions, and
IS crossed by several fair passes The most important of these, which
takes its name from the range, is traversed by a first-class bridged
and metalled road East of Rahudi, the Chandor range ceases to
be a barrier. Its chief peak, Dhodap, is 4,741 feet high. Several
of the minor peaks are of religious and historic interest. A low

NASIK DISTRICT

399

range separates Dindori from Nasik. On its peaks are the once
celebrated fort of Ramsej and the Jain cave-temples of Chambhar
Lena (see Nasik Town) The other important ranges are the Selbari
and Dolbari, varying from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. All streams of any
size to the south of the Chandor range are tributaries of the Godavari,
the principal of these being the Dama, Kadva, Deo, and Maralgm.
In the north of the watershed the Giina and its tributary the Mosam
flow through fertile valleys into the Tapti. The District contains many
hill forts, the scenes of engagements during the Maratha Wars.

Nasik District is entirely occupied by the Deccan trap formation, which
appears at the surface except where hidden under recent soil or
concealed beneath some comparatively limited outcrops of pliocene or
pleistocene gravels. The Deccan trap consists as usual of successive flows
of basalt, with a slight dip towards the east, which once accumulated
to a thickness of several thousand feet. Denudation acting uninter-
ruptedly during a protracted series of geological ages has removed
the greater part of this enormous mass , and the latest flows are now
reduced to small disconnected remnants forming the peaks of lofty
hills, of which the summits indicate the former level of the land
Some of the basalt flows are of great thickness and vast horizontal
extent, and the same flow can often be recognized in several of the
detached hills which denudation has isolated from one another. Over
most of the low-lying portions of the District the surface of the basalt
has weathered into fertile black soil. The red laterite which caps so
many flat-topped hills of the Sahyadri range farther south has been
almost all worn away within Nasik District The beds of clay and
conglomerate that form high cliffs along the banks of the Godavari
at Nandur Madmeshwar must have been deposited when the head-
waters of the river flowing eastwaids were situated to the west of
their present sites.

In these gravels have been found remains of hippopotamus, and
the skull and several bones of a gigantic elephant (E. namadicus\ a
variety of E, anhqmis which flourished in Europe towards the close of
the pliocene and commencement of the pleistocene period. In the
so-called older alluvium of the Narbada, which is probably pliocene
in age, the remains of E, namadtcus occur, together with those of
E. (Sfegodon) ganesa-tnstgms, a Siwalik species. A well near Bhadra
Kali’s temple in Nasik, and another near the Nasik jail, are remark-
able for the presence of nitrates in large quantities.

The botanical features diffei but little from those of adjacent Dis-
tricts. There is the same luxuriance of vegetation on the Western
Ghats and the same bare country on the Deccan side. The mango
and dadul are the commonest trees. Along the roadsides grow the
pipal^ banyan, pipn^ umhar^ karanj^ tamarind, mango, nlm^ jdmhil^

400

NASIK DISTRICT

and babul The Clematis triloba^ Deylandia, Tullca^ia, Ifidigofera^
Impatiens^ Exacuvi^ Canscora^ and Cyathoclme flower in most parts of
the District. The neighbourhood of Nasik town provides good grapes.

Of wild animals, leopards, antelope, and spotted deer are fairly
common. Tigers are only occasionally met with.

The climate of Nasik town and of the whole of the west of the
District is the best in the Deccan. It varies in different parts, but
on the whole presents greater extremes of heat and cold in the east
than in the west In January extreme cold and in April extreme
heat are experienced. During the lest of the year, constant breezes
fiom the west and south-west equalize the temperature. In 1903 the
temperature varied from a minimum of 50° in February to a maximum
of 105° in April The annual rainfall at Nasik town averages
29 inches, while at Igatpuri it is 133. The only othei tract with
a considerable rainfall is Feint, where the average is 87 inches. At
othei places the lainfall in 1903 varied from 20 inches at Malegaon
to 31 inches at Dindori

From the second century b c. to the second century a d. the Dis-
trict was under rulers, notably the Andhias, who patronized Buddhism,
and some of whom are supposed to have had a capital
' at Paithan, no miles south-east of Nasik. Among
other early Hindu dynasties weie the Chalukyas, the Rathois, and
the Chandor and Deogiri Yadavas. The Muhammadan period lasted
fiom 1295 to 1760, during which the District was successively under
the viceroys of Deogiri (Daulatabad), the Bahmanis of Gulbaiga,
the Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar, and the Mughals of Delhi, when
It formed part of the Subah of Aurangabad. The Maratha ascen-
dancy lasted from 1760 until 1818, when the Biitish power crushed
the last of the Peshwas. Since then twnce only has the peace of
the District been disturbed — once in 1843, when serious breaches of
order aiose on the slaughter o-f a cow by Europeans in Nasik town ;
and again m 1857, when some Rohillas, Arabs, and Bhils gathered
under the outlaw Bhagoji.

The town of Nasik is a place of great antiquity and sanctity, being
associated with the legend of Rama. The important cave-temples
are the Buddhistic caves known as Pandu Lena and the Jam caves
of Chambhar (see Nasik Town), and those of Ankai and of Tringal-
vadi near Igatpuri. Nasik has now a large number of temples,
mostly dating from the eighteenth century, and not remarkable for
their architectural beauty The temple of Govmdeshwar in Sinnar
forms a strong contrast to the smaller and nchly carved temples of
Lakshml Narayan at Pedgaon in Ahmadnagar Distiict, being adorned
chiefly with bands and panels of arabesque and other decoration,
instead of figure sculpture. The shrine of Aieshwara in the noith-

POPULATION^

40 r

west of the town of Sinnar is the remains of a Dravidian temple.
The Govindeshwar group is the finest collection of mediaeval temples
in the Deccan. The porch of the Jogeshwar temple at Devalana in
Baglan is elaborately decoiated, though much damaged An immense
hoard of silver coins of the Western Satraps was found in the District
in 1906.

Hill forts, of which the District contains thiity-eight, may be divided
into two classes those on the mam range or on the eastern spurs
of the Western Ghats, and those on the Chandor range in the centre
of the District. There are twenty-three Western Ghat forts, the
chief being Galna Anjaneri, Trimbak, Kulang and Alang, and
KA.LSUBAI Fifteen forts lie on the Chandor range, including Ankai,
Chandor, and Dhodap. Saptashring or Chatarsingi, one of the
principal hills in the Chandor range, is not fortified because it is
sacred to the Saptashring goddess. The Nasik hill forts bear a great
likeness to one another They are built on isolated hills nsing
like islands from the plateau, or on peaks connected by low narrow
necks. Each hill is capped by a mass of rock scarped by nature,
the crest being surrounded with walls pierced by massive gates at
accessible spots. Besides the walls and gates, the only work required
of man was the construction of cisterns to hold water, and flights of
steps. Of the origin of these forts there is no authentic history.
Report ascribes the construction of most of them to SivajT , but many
of them undoubtedly existed before his time, and weie the works of
the early Hindu rulers. Thus, in 808, Markmda fort appears to
have been an outpost of a Rashtrakuta king. Duiing the Mughal
ascendancy the Muhammadans became the masters of the forts, and
have left traces of their handiwork m Saracenic arches, inscriptions,
and tombs.

The number of towns and villages in the District is 1,649. At
the last four enumerations the population was : (1872) 737,685, (1881)
781,129, (1891) 843,496, and (1901) 816,504. The
decrease in 1901 was due to famine, which affected
the entire District. The distribution in 1901 of the population into
twelve talukas is shown in the table on next page

The chief towns are : Nasik, the head-quarters, Malegaon, Yeola,
Igatpuri, Sinnar, Manmad, Nandgaon, Chandor, and Trimbak
The average density is 140 persons per square mile. Nandgaon,
with only 87, is the most thinly populated tdhika. Classified accoiding
to religion, Hindus formed 93 per cent of the total, Musalmans 5 per
cent., Jams one per cent , and Christians numbered 2,935. The
vernacular of the District is Marathi.

The establishment of Maratha power attracted many Brahmans to
the District. These, numbering 27,000, are mainly Deshasths (21,000).

402

NASIK DISTRICT

The Yajurvedi Deshasths are the priestly class of the holy cities of
Nasik and Trimbak. Marathas (163,000) and Maratha Kunbis
(139,000) occupy the western portions, and are in general skilful
and successful cultivators. The more primitive Kolls (75,000), found
along the Western Ghats, are haidy and active. Formerly of un*
settled habits, of late years they have taken peacefully to agricultural
pursuits. Other castes of importance are Bhils (52,000), Vanjaris

Tdlttka,

Area in square
miles

Number of

Population

Population per
square mile.

Percentage of
variation in
population be-
tA\een iSgi
and 1901

Number of
persons able to
read and
write

E-

Villages

Baglaa

601

156

64,645

108

— I

2,636

Malegaon .

777

146

96,707

124

+ 12

37413

Kalvan

494

188

53.616

109

— II

1,685

Peint

432

227

537392

124

— 10

508

Dmdon

533

126

66,401

125

— 20

2,052

Chandor .

377

T07

55 , 9^58

148

+ 9

2,584

Nandgaon

435

37.691

+ 12

1,457

Nasik

470

135

q6,872

206

- 6

7,364

Niphad

415

119

92,791

223

+ *5

4,336

Yeola

410

119

56,584

138

- 14

3,752

Smnar

514

lOl

75,375

147

+ 3

3 ,°i 7

Igatpuii ,

393

127

66,462

169

“ 4

3,381

Bistiict total

5.85°

1,639*

816,504

140

35,17s

* The Agricultural department’s returns give the total number of villages as i, 6 g^

(31,000), Mails (28,000), Thakurs (17,000), and Varlis (9,000). Bhils
live a wandering life in the Dang or are settled in the richer parts
of the Desh, where they do duty as village watchmen, residing in
hamlets, known as Bhilvadas, close to the village site. Telis (oil-
pressers) number 11,000, Dhangais (shepherds and blanket-weavers)
15,000 Of the depressed classes, 73,000 are Mahars or village menials.
Of the total population, 59 per cent, live by agriculture, 9 per cent by
general labour, and 2 per cent, by mendicancy. It is characteristic of
the population to collect into small compact villages. The inhabi-
tants of the villages at the foot of the Western Ghats are to
a great extent migratory. Their poor lands seldom yield crops for
more than two years in succession ; and often m the hot season — -
their stock of gram running low — they are compelled to retire to the
forest and support themselves by felling and carrying timber, feeding
on fish, berries, and even roots The Musalmans (44,000) are nearly
all of foreign ongin, and are for the most part settled in the towns.

Of the 1,780 native Christians in 1901, 940 belonged to the
Anglican communion and 722 were Roman Catholics. The Chris-
tian village Sharanpur, in the immediate vicinity of Nasik, which was

AGRICULTURE

403

founded by the Rev. W. S. Price of the Church Missionary Society in
1854, contains an orphanage, mission houses, schools, and workshops,
built upon land granted by Government. For twenty-two years before
the establishment of a separate village there was a Christian school and
orphanage in Nasik town. In 1865 Dr. Livingstone visited the settle-
ment, and took with him to Africa several rescued African slave-boys
who were being educated there The orphanage contained 200 boys
and 129 girls in 1905, and is equipped for the teaching of carpentry,
smiths’ work, and printing. The Church Missionary Society has
branches at Malegaon, Manmad, Nandgaon, Deolali, and Igatpuri, and
maintains 14 vernacular schools, of which 7 are for boys, 6 for girls,
and one is for both sexes, and 5 Anglo-vernacular schools, of which
one IS for girls The number of pupils in these schools in 1905 was
969. The Zanana Mission maintains a hospital and a small orphanage
at Nasik, and a home for native girls at Manmad.

The soil may be divided into four classes the reddish-black mould
along rivers , a light black soil higher up ; a brown soil, stiffer and
shallower, found on the higher lands near the Ghats ; a • 1*
and highest and lightest of all, light brown or red,
often strewn with boulders and mixed with lime. A second crop is not
often raised. Manure is invariably used for all garden crops, but
rarely for others.

The District is mainly ryotwdri^ but contains indm lands covering
438 square miles. The chief statistics of cultivation in 1903-4 are
shown below, in square miles —

Talnka

Total

area.

Cultivated

Irrigated

Cultivable

waste

Forests

Baglan

601

320

188

Malegaon .

777

485

J91

Kalvan

494

214

150

Pemt

43a

166

145

Dmdon

532

377

Chandor

385

294

Nandgaon .

435

214

164

N^ik

470

329

1 2

Niphad

412

344

Yeola

410

313

Sinnar

514

390

Igatpnn

394

278

Total

5.856*

3,724

214

1,223

* Of this total, which is based upon the most recent information, statistics are not
available for 142 square miles.

Bdjra^ the staple food of the people, covers an area of 1,099 squaie
miles , It IS sown with a mixture of pulses. Wheat (393 square miles) is
grown largely in the central and southern tdlukas\ it is a fine gram,
hard and white. Jowdr occupies 16 r square miles. Rice and ndgli

404

NASTK DISTRICT

are grown on hill lands. Of pulses, the chief are kuhth (145 square
miles), gram (95), and tur (32). Oilseeds of various kinds occupy as
much as 508 square miles. Of these, linseed is especially important ;
the area of khurdsni or nigei-seed is usually larger, but this crop
is not in demand for export Cotton occupies an increasing area
(ill square miles in 1903-4), especially in Malegaon, and tobacco of
inferior quality is raised in small quantities over the whole District.
Much caie is devoted to the cultivation of sugar-cane. Among gaiden
products, three varieties of the vine have long been grown by Nasik
Kunbis and Malls. Guavas, potatoes, and ground-nuts, and, in selected
tracts, the betel-vine are also cultivated The Baglan tdluka is specially
noted for its garden cultivation. Rice and hill-millets aie the staples of
the Dang, with khurasm^ which is grown in rotation with the millets
The usual rotation is ndchfu^ sdva^ and kJmrdsni, After the third year’s
crop has been reaped, the land lies fallow for several years. In Feint
the area of land prepared for rice is comparatively small. Heie cul-
tivation IS backwaid, and little labour has been spent on embanking
land for rice.

About 1839 Mr Grant obtained from Government a grant of 154
acres of land near Nasik rent free for five yeais for agricultural experi-
ments. Potatoes of good quality were successfully giown and dis-
tributed among local husbandmen, who soon became alive to the value
of the crop. In addition to supplying local wants, Nasik potatoes found
their way to the Malegaon and Mhow cantonments. Besides intro-
ducing potatoes Mr Grant brought many grass seeds from France,
Italy, and Malta Indigo and upper Georgian green-seeded cotton and
Bombay mango-trees and coffee plants were also tried, but all failed.
Mauritius sugar-cane, peas, and European vegetables were grown to
a considerable extent, and the seeds distributed among the people
Large advances have been made to cultivators under the Land Im-
provement and Agriculturists’ Loans Acts, amounting during the
decade ending 1904 to 14^ lakhs, of which 937 lakhs was ad\anced
between 1899-1900 and 1901-2.

One pony stallion is maintained for horse-breeding purposes at Male-
gaon by the Civil Veterinary department Nasik possesses a local
breed of bullocks which, though small, are fit for agricultural w^oik and
cost from Rs. 20 to Rs. 200 per pair. Other breeds are the Surti, Var-
hadi, Kilhari, Malvi, and Gavrani. Of these the Kilhari, from Indore,
are trotting bullocks, too small for field-work. Buffaloes are used foi
ploughing, heavy draught-work, and water-carrying. Sheep are of two
kinds, Gairani and Harani, the latter being distinguished by a short
muzzle. Professional shepherds use the wool for weaving, the bones
for sickle-handles, and the skins for drums. Of goats, the Nimar
variety with long twisted horns is far more valuable than the small

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS

local breed. In Smnar, Yeola, and other level tracts small ponies,
useful for pack-carrying, are bred.

Irrigation by wells and dams has been long in vogue, and the
irrigated area is now considerable, amounting to 97 square miles. The
areas irrigated from various sources are : Government channels and
canals, 27 square miles, wells, 52 square miles, and other sources
18 squaie miles. Among larger works are the Kadva liver works and
the Parsul tank. The former, which commands 63 square miles,
includes the Palkhed canal in Dindori and Niphad, opened in 1873,
supplying 3 square miles ; the Vadah canal in Niphad, an old scheme
improved and enlarged in 1868, supplying 391 acres, and the Ojhar
Tambat, also an old work m Dindori and Niphad, improved in 1873,
irrigating 495 acres. All these canals are fed by a large reservoii at
Vaghad, 18 miles north of Nasik town, in which rain-water is stored
The Parsul tank, which commands 5 square miles, irrigated 668 acres
in 1903-4. Wells used for irrigation number 21,700, chiefly found
in Nasik, Malegaon, Smnar, and Niphad. The depth of water varies
from 6 to 32 feet. The water-supply of Peint is deficient.

The forests which formeily covered the Western Ghats have neaily
disappeared, but every effort is being made to prevent further destruc-
tion and to afforest some of the hills. The Na&ik forest circle, with
a total aiea of about 1,362 ^ square miles, mcludes three groups — the
Girna, Godavari, and Peint foiests — the lines of hills at Saptashnng
and Peint being fairly covered with trees. The Reserves are of
four chief classes scrub forest, teak coppice, evergreen forest, and
dabiil. They contain few timber trees of any value The forest
administration is under a divisional Forest offlcei who has one assis-
tant. The revenue in 1903-4 amounted to nearly Rs. 54,000.

Good building stone is obtainable from the basalt of the trap
which occupies the whole of the District. Fine specimens of zeolites
occupying cavities in the basalt were disclosed during excavations
necessitated by the construction of the railway line.

Cotton and silk goods are woven chiefly at Yeola, and thence sent as
far as Bombay, Poona, Satara, and Sholapur. The value of the annual
exports from Yeola is calculated to amount to
25 lakhs. The silk industry at this place supports Trade and
4,000 families Under the Muhammadans and
Marathas it was a monopoly, which was set aside by a decision of the
Bombay High Court in 1864. Since then many outsiders have taken
to silk-weavmg. Gold and silver thread is also made. Malegaon con-
tains nearly 3,000 looms ; but the product is of inferior quality. Smnar

^ This figure exceeds the total given in the table on p 403 owing to corrections not
having been made in the forest registers, and to the non-inclnsion in the agncultural
returns of 87 square miles of ‘ protected * forests.

4o6

NiSIK DISTRICT

and Vinchur produce a little cotton cloth of various kinds and colours
for local consumption. Copper, brass, and silver vessels are largely
manufactured at Nasik town, and thence sent to Bombay, Poona, and
other places. The metal-work of Nasik, especially in brass, is held
to be very superior in make and polish. Besides the railway work-
shop, there are four ginning factories employing over 750 hands.

The principal articles of expoit are grain, oilseeds, molasses, cotton
cloth and silk goods, san-hempt copper, brass and silver ware. A
great quantity of gram, chiefly wheat, is bought up by agents of Bom-
bay firms, at Lasalgaon, on the railway, 146 miles from Bombay, where
there is a permanent market. There is also a considerable export of
garden produce, onions, garlic, and betel-leaves. The chief imports
are raw silk, cotton thread, copper and brass, sugar, groceries, and salt.
Before the introduction of the railway, there was (chiefly along the
Bombay and Agra and the Ahmadnagar and Poona roads) a large
carrying trade through the District. The Vanjaris or Lamans, and
others in whose hands this traffic rested, have suffered much by the
change. Such of them as remain have taken to agriculture. The chief
traffic with the interior proceeds through the ancient Thai Pass on its
way to Bombay. Weekly markets are held at every town, and in many
of the larger villages Besides these weekly markets, fairs are held
each year in connexion with certain temples and religious places,
notably Trimbak, which partake very much of the nature of the
markets, but aie larger and display a greater variety of goods. They
usually last for a week or a fortnight, and attract great numbers of
people, some from considerable distances. The chief centres of local
traffic are Igatpun, Nasik, Lasalgaon, Nandgaon, Manmad, and Yeola,
on or near the railway ; Pimpalgaon (Basvant), Chandor, and Malegaon,
on the Bombay-Agra road; and Sinnar on the Ahmadnagar-Nasik
road.

The communications of the District were improved by the opening
of the north-east line of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway in 1861,
and by the opening of the Dhond-Manmad State Railway in 187S.
The former line enters Nasik at Igatpun, and on the no miles
which pass through the District as far as Naydongri there are
sixteen stations. The latter railway forms a chord-lme connecting
Manmad in Nasik with Dhond in Poona Distnct on the south-
east line of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. In igoi the Hyder-
abad'Godavari Valley Railway was opened for through traffic from
Manmad to Hyderabad. It traverses a few miles of the Chandor
ialuka and the north of the Yeola taluka. Besides the railway lines
running through the District, there are 570 miles of road, of which
303 are metalled. All are maintained by the Public Works depart-
ment, except 69 miles of unmetalled road in charge of the local

FAMINE

407

authorities. The Bombay-Agra trunk road traverses the District , the
Nizam’s frontier road runs from Satana through Malegaon, Manmad,
and Yeola to Ahmadnagar ^ and a third road runs to Poona through
Sinnar, Nasik, Dindoii, and Kalvan. Along the 5 miles of road
between Nasik city and Nasik Road station on the Great Indian
Peninsula Railway a small tramway, opened in 1891, carries 150,000
passengers yearly.

The great Durga-devI famine, lasting from 1396 to 1407, is said to
have wrought as much devastation in Nasik as in the Southern Deccan,
and the memory of it has never been obliterated. Famine
Famines also occurred in 1460, 1520, and 1629,
but the severest of which record remains was the famine of 1 791-2
Liberal remissions by the Peshwa, the prohibition of gram exportation,
and the regulation of prices alleviated the misery. In 1802-4 the
ravages of the Pindaris produced such scarcity that a pound of grain
is said to have cost ii annas. The scarcity of 1876-7 caused no little
distress Special measures of relief were taken, and at one period
nearly 18,000 persons were employed on woiks, besides those relieved
in villages. The total expenditure on relief during the continuance
of the scarcity was about 4 lakhs. In 1896-7 the distress was mainly
due to high pnces of food, and did not reach the acute stage. The
years 1897 and 1898, though not quite normal, gave the District good
khanf and fair rabi harvests. But before the District had time to
recover from the depletion of stocks and resources occasioned by the
strain of the year 1896-7, the people had to face the almost complete
failure of the rains of 1899. It is estimated that the total out-turn was
only about 1 9 per cent, of that of an ordinary year. The entire District
was thus affected, though not in equal degree. As early as Octobei,
1899, the number on relief reached 1,051 In March, 1900, it rose
to 105,664, including 1,247 in receipt of gratuitous lelief, and then
decreased until February, 1901, when it again rose owing to the
unfavourable rains of the previous year. The number gratuitously
relieved reached a maximum of 12,207 September, 1900. The
District being on the outskirts of the seriously affected area, the year
brought an influx of wanderers from neighbouring States. Between
September, 1899, and September, 1900, the number of deaths exceeded
the normal by 31,890, and the death-rate per 1,000 exceeded the mean
death-rate for the ten previous years by 38. The total cost of relief
measures, including remissions of land revenue (ii-8 lakhs), amounted
to 45 lakhs. Advances to cultivators exceeded 10 lakhs.

Partial inundations frequently occur, and the flood of 1872, when
the Godavari at Nasik town rose 21 feet above its ordinary level, caused
great damage. In 1854 and again in 1904 locusts committed serious
ravages.

4o8

NASIK DISTRICT

The administration of the District is entrusted to a Collector and
three Assistants, of whom two are Covenanted Civilians The District
is divided into the 12 tdliikas of Nasik, Sinnar,

Administration, Dindori, Niphad, Chandor, Yeola,

Nandgaon, Malegaon, Baglan, Kalvan, and Feint. The Collectoi
IS also Political Agent of the Surgana State.

Until recent years Nasik was included in the jurisdiction of the
Judge of Thana. It has noiy a District and Sessions Judge, assisted
for civil business by seven Subordinate Judges, including a Joint
Subordinate Judge at Nasik town. There are 35 officers to administer
criminal justice in the District. The commonest foims of ciime are
housebreaking and theft.

The Bntish possessions in Nasik have, since 1818, been enlarged
by the cession of a few villages by Holkar in exchange for others neai
Indore, and by the lapse of the possessions of the Begam of Feint and
of the Raja Bahadur of Malegaon. In 1818 the Nasik teriitory was
placed partly under Khmidesh and partly under Ahmadnagar. The
portion allotted to Ahmadnagar was made into a sub-collectorate in
1837 , and in 1869 the other portion was added, and the whole was
constituted a separate District. At first the old system of management
w^as continued, but the practice of farming the revenue was abolished
Crop rates were changed into acre rates, and for a few years there was
considerable prosperity; but with a decline m prices, the poverty of
the people became noticeable. Subsequently, between 1840 and 1876,
the survey was introduced in the plain country of the Nasik sub-
collectorate, and the revenue was reduced by nearly one-half In the
hilly country to the west the assessment on ‘ dry-crop ’ land was fixed
at a lump sum, and was made recoverable from each entire village for
a period of five years, a plan which proved to be most successful. The
portion of the District transfeired from Khandesh was brought under
survey in 1868 The effect of the smvey in Nasik was to disclose
a great increase in the occupied area , and as in these parts the rates
were revised on the expiry of the first guarantee, the revenue increased
53 per cent, above the amount collected in the period before the
survey The revision survey settlement was commenced in 1872.
The new survey found an excess in the cultivated area of 4 per cent
in five tdlukas for which details are available. The average assessment
per acre on ‘dry’ land is 10 annas, on rice land Rs 2-3, and on garden
land Rs. 4-7 for patsthal (land watered from a channel), and R. i for
motsihal (land watered from a well).

Collections on account of land revenue and revenue from all sources
are shown on the next page, in thousands of rupees.

Outside the limits of the six municipalities of Nasik, Yeola,
Sinnar, Malegaon, Igatpuri, and Trimbak, the local affairs of the

ADMimSTRA TION

409

District aie managed by the Distuct board and t\\elve taluka boards.
The total income of the municipalities averages i| lakhs The receipts
of the local boards in 1903-4 were Rs 2,09,000, the principal source
of income being the land cess. The expendituie amounted to
i-| lakhSj including Rs. 42,000 spent upon roads and buildings.

iS8o-i

1890-1

IQOO-I

c;o3-4

Land le venue

Total revenue

I =1.67

21,60

17,86

2441

^ 1 , 1 ^

34.44

21,61

29*25

The District Superintendent has general control ovei the police,
aided by an Assistant and two inspectors. There are 21 police
stations, and the total number of police in 1904 was 796, of whom
14 are chief constables, 17 1 head constables, and 611 constables.
The mounted police number 9, under one daffadar. Besides the
District jail at Nasik, there are 14 subsidiary jails in the District, with
accommodation for a total of 214 piisoners The daily average number
of prisoners in 1904 was 88, of whom 9 were females

Compared with other Districts, education is backward in Nasik,
which stood eighteenth among the 24 Districts of the Presidency in
1901 as regards the literacy of its population The Census returned
4*3 of the population (8 2 males and 0-4 females) as able to lead and
write. Education, however, has made progress of late years. In
1855-6 there were only 17 schools in the District with 1,268 pupils.
In 1881 there were 208 schools and 10,770 pupils. The number of
pupils rose to 17,933 but fell to 15,378 in 1901. In 1903-4

there were 305 public schools with 14,914 pupils, including 1,841 girls,
besides 16 piivate schools with 283 pupils. Of 305 schools classed as
public, one is a high school, 13 middle, and 291 primary. One school
is supported by Government, 219 by the local boards, 36 by the
municipal boards, 39 are aided and 10 unaided. The total expenditure
on education in 1903-4 was about lakhs, of which Rs. 23,000 were
contributed by Local funds and Rs 18,000 by fees. Of the total,
73 per cent, was devoted to primary schools.

Besides one hospital and 1 2 dispensaries, there are 4 private medical
institutions in the District with accommodation for 128 in-patients.
In 1904 the number of patients treated was 135,782, of whom 944
were m-patients, and 2,794 operations were performed. The total
expenditure on the hospital and dispensaries was Rs. 23,000, of which
Rs. 13,000 was met from Local and municipal funds.

The number successfully vaccinated in 1903-4 was 21,149, repre-
senting a proportion of 26 per 1,000 of population, which exceeds the
average for tjie Presidency.

[Sir J. M. Campbell, Bombay Gazetteer^ vol. xiv (1883).]

410 NASIK TALUKA

Nasik Taluka . — Taluka of Nasik District, Bombay, lying between
19° 48' and 20^ Y N. and 73° 25' and 73° 58' E , with an area of 470
square miles. It contains 3 towns, Nasik (population, 21,490),^ its
head-quarters, being the largest , and 135 villages. The population m
1901 was 96,872, compared with 103,005 in 1891. The density, 206
persons per square mile, is much above the District average. The
demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was i 4 lakhs, and for cesses
Rs ir,ooo The west of the taluka is hilly, and theie is a small level
tract in the east, but the geneial character of the country is undulating
The soil IS generally poor. The water-supply, except near the Western
Ghats, IS good. The climate is on the whole healthy.

Nasik Town. — Head-quarters of Nasik District, Bombay, situated
in 20° N. and 73° 47' E., 5 miles north-west of Nasik Road on the
north-eastern line of the Gieat Indian Peninsula Railway, with which it
IS connected by a light tramway. Distance from Bombay, 107 miles.
On account of the great number of pilgiims who visit its shrines, the
population of Nasik varies much at different times of the year. The
fixed population would seem to increase but slowly. The returns for
1850 gave a total of 21,860. In 1872 the inhabitants numbered
22,436, in 1881, 23,766; in 1891, 24^429, and in 1901, 21,490. Of
the total number, 17,944 were Hindus, 3,257 Muhammadans, and 133
Jams.

Among Hindus Nasik is considered a spot of special interest and
holiness This is due to the sanctity of the river Godavari, and to the
belief that Rama, hero of the Ramayana, lived here for some time with
his wife Sita and his brother Lakshman. About 30 miles from its
source, the Godavari, flowing eastwards through a group of small hills,
turns sharply to the south, and, after passing in that direction for
about a mile, again swerves suddenly towards the east. Here, on both
sides of the river, but chiefly on its right or south-eastern bank, lies
the town of Nasik. Along the light bank the town stretches for about
a mile, spreading over three small hills that rise abruptly from the
river-side. The buildings, covering an area of about 2 square miles,
are divided into two main paits — the new town to the north and the
old town to the south Though, according to tradition, a place of
extreme antiquity, the old town of Nasik is without rums or buildings
of any age, except the mosque standing on the site of the old fort. In
style and appearance the houses do not differ from the new quarter,
little of which IS more than a hundred years old.

Panchvati, the portion of the town on the left bank of the river,
in extent about one-seventh part of the whole, is connected with the
main town by the Victoria Bridge, built m 1897 at a cost of 2\ lakhs.
It has several large temples and substantial dwellings, owned and
inhabited chiefly by Brahmans. Between Panchvati and the old towm

NASIK TOWN

4tr

the river banks are, for about 400 yards, lined with masonry walls and
flights of stone steps or ghats. On both sides places of worship fringe
the banks, and even the bed of the stream is thickly dotted with
temples and shrines The river is split up into a series of pools or
tanks {kii?ids) bearing the names of Hindu deities, of which the Ram-
kund IS reputed to be the holiest. Though the town is not walled, the
streets opening on the nver and leading to the southern and western
suburbs are ornamented with gateways. The streets are for the most
part narrow and crooked , and the houses, built on plinths 2 or 3 feet
high, have almost all an upper floor, and most of them more than one
storey. The fronts of many are rich in well-carved woodwork, and the
whole place has an air of wealth and comfort not to be seen in most
Deccan towns.

Though, since the misfortunes of Rama and Sita, Nasik has lanked
among the most sacred places of Hindu pilgrimage, its early Hmdu
rulers do not seem to have raised it to any position of wealth or
impoitance The Musalmans made it the head-quarters of a division,
and are said to have protected the town by building a fort, and to have
fostered its trade, introducing the manufacture of paper and other
industries. On the rise of the Maralha power, Nasik, chosen by the
Peshwas as one of their capitals, increased in size and wealth. At first,
under Bntish government, it passed through a time of depression , but
of late years the opening of railway communication and the establish-
ment here of the head-quarters of the District have added much to its
wealth and prosperity.

Among the objects of interest in the neighbourhood of Nasik are the
Dasara maidduy about half a mile to the south-east of the city ; Tapo-
van with some caves and a famous shrine of Rama about a mile east
of Panchvati , the old settlement of Govardhan or Gangapur, with a
picturesque waterfall, 6 miles to the west, the Christian village of
Sharanpur about a mile to the north-west ; the Jain Chambhar caves
and the Pandu Lena or Buddhist caves These last are situated in
one of three isolated hills, close to the Bombay road, which are called
in the inscriptions Trirashmi. They are a group of old Buddhist
caves (250 B. c. to a. d. 600), with many inscriptions of kings of the
Andhra, Kshatrapa, and other dynasties. The caves are 1 7 in number
and are of three kinds • chaiiya or chapel caves, layanas or dwelling
caves, and sattras or dining caves. Almost every cave has a cistern or
two with a water-supply. The caves when first finished do not seem
to have contained images. Later image worshippers appear to have
transformed them to suit the new creed The images are chiefly of
Gautama Buddha ; the Bodhi-sattwas, Vaj’rapani and Padmapani ; and
the Buddhist goddess Tara. The inscriptions hold the first place in
Western India on account of their length, preservation, and the value

VOL. XVIII. X) d

412

JVASIJ^ TOWN

of the information they supply. Their contents throw light on the
history of Western India between loo b c and a d. ioo, giving many
names of countries, mountains, rivers, cities, towns, and villages
Chambhar Lena, or the Chambhar caves, aie cut in a hill 600 feet
above the plain, about 5 miles north of Nasik. They are Jam caves of
no great age or merit. In 1870 the Jam community of Nasik, com-
pnsing some wealthy Marwari and Gujarati bankeis and cloth-dealers,
built a wall near the caves, a flight of steps, a cistern at the foot of the
hill, and a > large resthouse in Mhasrul village which lies close by.
The caves are about 450 feet from the base of the hill and face south-
west, The upper part of the ascent is by a stair of roughly dressed
stone, containing 173 steps of varying heights and with side parapets.
[For a description of these caves see Bo?nbay Gazetteer^ voh xvi,
pp, 541-639 and 426-8.]

The municipality was established in 1864, and raised to the position
of a city municipality in 1874. The receipts during the decade ending
1901 averaged Rs 85,000. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 73,000,
chiefly drawn from octroi, a house-tax, a sanitary cess, and tolls,
together with a tax on pilgiims. The climate is healthy and pleasant
The Government high school has 220 pupils, and there is a good
public library. Besides the chief revenue and judicial offices, the town
contains two Subordinate Judges’ courts, two hospitals (including the
Bai Dhankorabai Hospital for females), and a dispensary in Panchvati

The industries of Nasik maintain something of their former im-
portance, although, owing to the competition of machinery, the manu-
facture of paper has greatly declined. Neither wool nor silk is woven
here , but cotton hand-loom weaving is still earned on with success,
and in brass- and copper- work Nasik ranks first among the towns of the
Bombay Presidency The cotton- weavers earn about 4 to 5 annas
a day for twenty days in the month , women assist and earn i to 2
annas a day The old and new palaces of the Peshwa accommodate
the Collector’s Court and the municipal and other public offices.

Naslrabad Subdivision. — Subdivision and fahsll of the Sibi
District, Baluchistan, lying between 27° 55' and 28° 40' N and 67® 40'
and 69° 20' E., on the border of the Upper Sind Frontier District
of Sind. It has an area of 852 square miles and a population (1901)
of 35,713, and, for administrative purposes, includes the ^railway line
from the neighbourhood of Jhatpat to Mithri. The head-quarters of
the iahsil are at present at Nasirabad, about 8 miles from Jacob-
abad. It contains 170 villages. It depends for cultivation on the
Begari and Desert Canals of the Smd system, and is the only iahsil in
Administered territory in which indigo and gram are produced. In
1904-5, the first complete year of administration, the land revenue,
excluding water rate, amounted to 1-2 lakhs. Water rate is levied at

NASiRABAD TOWN 413

R I per irrigated acre on the Begari Canal, and at Rs. 1-8 on the
Desert Canal, The incidence of land levenue is R. i per acre, and
a special cess of 6 pies is also collected, A revision of the rates is
contemplated, beginning from 1905.

Nasirabad Taluka. — Tdliika in Larkana District, Sind, Bombay,
lying between 27° 13' and 27° 33' N. and 67^ 33' and 68° 6' E., with
an area of 417 square miles. The population in 1901 was 56,544,
compared with 44,644 in 1891. The tdhika contains 65 villages, of
which Warah is the head-quarters. The density, 135 peisons pei
squaie mile, slightly exceeds the District average. The land revenue
and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to 2*8 lakhs. Nasirabad is a 1 ice-
producing tdhika and depends for its irrigation upon the Chilo Wah
and Nasir Wah, both subsidiaries of the Ghar Canal. On the south
the soil contains much salt and is unfit for cultivation.

Nasirabad Town (i). — Town in the Jalgaon taluka of East Khan-
desh District, Bombay, situated m 21° N. and 75° 40'' E., 2 miles south
of Bhadli on the north-eastern line of the Great Indian Peninsula Rail-
way. Population (1901), 12,176. The town is noted for the manu-
facture of glass bangles by Musalmans. There are several old mosques
m the neighbourhood. Jalgaon, the head-quarters of the taluka^ lies
about 6 miles to the west. Nasirabad was several times harried by the
Bhils of the Satmala range before the occupation of the country by
the British, In r8oi it was plundered by a freebooter named Juba,
and again, just before the great famine of 1803, by one of the
Peshwa’s deputies. After this the village wall was built by one of
the Purandhare family, to whom the town was given in grant. The
town contains a cotton-ginning and pressing factory, and six schools,
with 773 pupils, of which two, with 92 pupils, are for girls.

Nasirabad Town (2), — Head-quarters of Mymensingh District,
Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 24° 46' N. and 90° 24' E ,
on the west bank of the old Brahmaputra. Population (1901), 14,668.
The Dacca section of the Eastern Bengal State Railway passes through
the town. Nasirabad was constituted a municipality in 1869, and
has hitherto been known by that name j but recently it was decided
to change its designation to that of the Mymensingh municipality.
The income during the decade ending 190 1-2 averaged Rs. 50,000,
and the expenditure Rs. 49,000. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 77,000,
including Rs 9,000 derived from a property tax, Rs. 10,000 from
a conservancy rate, Rs. 3,000 from a tax on houses and lands, and
Rs 11,000 from a water rate. The incidence of taxation was Rs. 2-7-8
per head of the population. In the same year the expenditure was
Rs 81,000, the chief items being Rs. 2,000 spent on lighting, Rs. 3,000
on drainage, Rs 12,000 on conservancy, Rs. 14,000 on medical relief,
Rs. 3,000 on roads, Rs. 13,000 on buildings, and Rs 28,000 on water-

Dd 2

4T4

NASlRABAD TOWN

supply. The system of water-supply, constructed in 1893 at a cost of
1*42 lakhs, was presented to the town by Maharaja Surjya Kanta
Acharjya.

The town possesses the usual public buildings. In the District jail,
which has accommodation for 550 prisoners, the chief industries
carried on are oil-pressing, carpet- and cloth-weaving, mat and cane
chair-makmg, brick-making, and bnck-pounding. The products are
disposed of locally The chief educational institutions are the Mymen-
singh Government school, established in 1853, with 301 pupils on the
rolls at the end of 1904; and the City College of Mymensingh, estab-
lished in 1901, with 120 scholars, which is affiliated to the Calcutta
University and teaches up to the First Arts standard. The Nasirabad
charitable dispensary, with 24 beds, an eye mfirmaiy, and a female
ward, was maintained m 1903 at a cost of Rs. ir,ooo , at this institution
836 m-patients and 21,000 out-patients were treated during the year.

Nasirabad Town (3). — Town and cantonment in Ajmer- Merwara,
Rajputana, situated in 26° 18^ N and 74° 43' E , on a bleak, open plain,
sloping eastward from the Aravalli Hills. Population (1901) of canton-
ment, 2,454; of town, 20,040, total, 22,494 Hindus numbered
14,283, Muhammadans 7,059, Christians 757, and Jains 354. The
area of the town and cantonment is 8 5 square miles The military
station, which was laid out in 1818 by Sir David Ochterlony, is over
a mile in length and has upon its outskirts the native town. Lines exist
for a battery of field artillery, a regiment of British infantry, a regiment
of Native infantry, and a squadron of Native cavalry. Nasirabad is in
the Mhow division of the Western Command. The drainage is good,
but the water is brackish and insufficient in quantity. The two Bengal
Infantry regiments and a native battery at Nasirabad mutinied on
May 28, 1857, and marched away to Delhi without attempting to attack
Ajmer. The Bombay cavalry regiment protected the British residents
and remained loyal throughout. NasIrabM is a station on the Malwa
line of the Rajputana-Malwa State Railway. The United Free Church
of Scotland has a mission establishment here, and maintains a hospital
Local affairs are managed by a cantonment committee. The town
possesses a hydraulic press.

Nasrat. — Tdluka in Hyderabad District, Sind, Bombay, recently
(1903) formed from the Moro, Sakrand, and Shahdadpur tdlukas^ and
lying between 26° 4' and 26° 37' N. and 68° 23' and 68° 56' E., with
an area of 930 square miles. The population (1901) is 5,074, living in
74 villages, of which Nawabdiah is the head-quarters. The land revenue
and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to about Rs. 86,000. The prevailing
feature of the tdluka is its sandhills; and prior to 1903 it consisted
of a stretch of desert dependent on the ramfall. It is now irrigated by
the Nasrat Canal, and produces bdjra^ sesamum, and cotton.

NATMAUK

415

Naswadi. — Petty State in Rewa Kantha, Bombay

Nathdwara (‘ the portal of the god ') — Walled town in the State of
Udaipur, Rajputana, situated in 24° 56' N. and 73° 49' E , on the right
bank of the Banas iiver, about 30 miles north-by-north-east of Udaipur
city, and 14 miles north-west of Maoll station on the Udaipur-Chitor
Railway. In 1901 the town contained 8,591 inhabitants, more than
83 per cent, being Hindus , but, in a place of pilgrimage like this, the
population varies almost w^eekly. There is a combined post and
telegraph office, and the Maharaj Gosain of Nathdw^ara maintains a
dispensary. The town possesses one of the most famous Vaishnavite
shrines in India, in which is an image of Kiishna, popularly said
to date from the twelfth century b.c This image was placed by
Vallabhacharya in a small temple at Muttia in 1495 and was moved
to Gobardhan in 1519. About 150 years later, when Aurangzeb
endeavoured to lOot out the worship of Krishna, the descendants of
Vallabhacharya left Muttra District with their images and wandered
about Rajputana till 1671, when Rana Raj Singh invited thiee of them
to Mewar. To Dwarka Nath he assigned the village of Asotiya near
Kankroli, while for Sri Nathjfs woiship he set apart the village of
Siar, to the south of which the town of Nathdwara was subsequently
built. The guardian of the temple is termed Maharaj Gosain, and is
the head of the Vallabhacharya sect of Biahmans , besides this town,
he holds thirty villages in different parts of Mewar, and land m
Baioda, Bharatpur, Bikaner, Karauli, Kotah, Partabgarh, and other
States, and a village in Ajmer District granted by Daulat Rao
Sindhia. The annual income of his estates is about two lakhs, and
the offerings received at the shrine are estimated at between four
and five lakhs yearly. Small jewels of gold or silver, very artistically
decorated with coloured enamel, are made at Nathdwara, and sold
to pilgrims.

[A. Cunningham, Archaeological Survey of Northern India^ vol. xxiii,
pp. 99-101.]

Nathia Gali. — Hill station in the Abbottabad tahsil of Hazara
District, North-West Frontier Province, and summer head-quarters of
the Chief Commissioner, situated in 34° f N and 73° 58' E , on the
road from Murree to Abbottabad, about half-way between each place.
Together with Dunga Gali, it constitutes a ‘notified area’ under the
Punjab Municipalities Act, 1891, of which the income in 1903-4 was
Rs 3,000, chiefly derived from a house tax. The expenditure was
Rs. 1,900.

Natmauk. — North-eastern township of Magw'e District, Upper
Burma, lying between 20° 15' and 20^46' N, and 95° 2' and 95®49'E ,
with an area of 887 square miles. The greater part of the area is dry
and poorly watered. Rice is raised in the neighbourhood of the Yin

4i6 NATMAUK

river, while over the rest of the township the chief crops aie millet and
sesamum. The population was 42,611 in 1891, and 53,262 m 1901,
distributed in 181 villages. The head-quarters are at Nalmauk (popula-
tion, 530), on the Yin river, 36 miles north-east of Magwe, with which
it is connected by a good road In 1903-4 the area cultivated was
167 square miles, and the land revenue and thaihameda amounted
to Rs. 82,000.

Natogyi. — North-eastern township of Myingyan District, Upper
Burma, lying between 21° 18' and 21® 40' N and 95® 31' and 96® i' E.,
with an area of 395 square miles. Its surface is undulating, rising
towards the north and north-west. Mogaung rice is grown near the
borders of Kyaukse District, the staple crop, howevei, is cotton.
Irrigation renders this the richest township in the District. The
population was 52,956 in 1891, and 57,338 in 1901, distributed in 160
villages, Natogyi (population, 3,146), a prosperous cotton market in
the centre of the township, being the head -quarters. In 1903-4 the
area cultivated was 16 1 square miles, and the land revenue and
thaihameda amounted to Rs. 1,17,000.

Nator Subdivision. — Eastern subdivision of Rajshahi District,
Eastern Bengal and Assam, lymg between 24® 7' and 24® 48' N. and
88® 51'' and 89° 21' E , with an area of 816 square miles The popula-
tion was 422,399 in 1901, compared with 443,511 in 1891, the density
being 518 persons per square mile It contains one town, Nator
(population, 8,654), the head-quarters; and 1,727 villages. With the
exception of the Lalpur thdna, situated on the Padma, most of this
subdivision is a swampy depression, waterlogged and aboundmg in
marshes, the largest of which is the great Chalan Bil.

Nator Town.— Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same name
in Rajshahi District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 24° 26' N.
and 89® E., on the north bank of the Narad nver, on the northern

section of the Eastern Bengal State Railway, and on the main road
fiom Rampur Boalia to Bogra. Population (1901), 8,654. It was
formerly the capital of the District , but owing to its unhealthmess (the
town being built on low marsh-land reclaimed from the liver), the
head-quarters were transferred to Rampur Boalia. Nator is a compact
town, clinging close round the palace of the Nator Rajas. This family
lose into power in the early part of the eighteenth century, and
gradually obtained possession of most of the District , but it has since
greatly declined. Natoi was constituted a municipality in 1869. The
income during the decade ending 1901-2 averaged Rs. 14,200, and
the expenditure Rs. 13,500 In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 15,600,
including Rs. 5,700 derived from a tax on persons (or property tax),
Rs 3,300 fiom a conservancy rate, and Rs. 3,000 from a tax on animals
and vehicles, and the expenditure was Rs. 13,400. Nator contains

AUUSBAIIJ^A TAIISiL

417

the usual subdi\ibional offices, the sub-jail has accommodation for
12 prisoners.

Naugaon . — Thakiuat in the Malwa Aokncv, Central India.

Naugaon. — British cantonment in Cential India. Sec NowtiONo.

Naungpale. — One of the Karenn^i States, Burma.

Naushahra Tahsil (i). — 2 \ihul oi Peshawai Distnct, NoitlvWest
Fiontier Province, lying between 33° 47' and 34° 9' N. and 71° 40' and
72° 15' E., with an area of 703 stpiaie miles. It consists of a small
tiact of low-lying riverain land on both sides of the Kabul river, known
as the Khalsa and of the Khattak j[>a 7 'gima which includes the

Khwaira-Nilab valley and is separated from it by the Khattak range
This range culminates in the Ghaibana Sir (5,136 feet in height) on the
western boundary of the tahsil^ and the sanitaiiuin of Cherat (4,542
feet), whence the range trends to the castvvaid, gradually sinking to
2,380 feet at Hodi Sir above the Indus Half the taJisil is hilly and
very broken country, the mam pait of Us area consisting of the aiid
and barren slopes on the north of the Khattak hills towards Kabul.
The north-west corner is nngated by the Kabul River Canal. The
population m 1901 was 116,163, compaied with 180,201 in 1S91. It
contains the town of Naushahra (population, 9,518), the head-quar-
teis, the hill station of Cherat, and 142 villages. The land revenue
and cesses m 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 1,21,000.

Naushahra Town (i). — Town and cantonment in Peshawar Dis-
trict, North-West Frontier Province, and head-quarters of the subdivi-
sion and tahsil of the same name, situated in 34® N. and 72® E., on the
North-Western Railway and the grand trunk road, 27 miles due east of
Peshawar, Population (1901), 9,518. The cantonment stretches along
the right bank of the Kabul river on a sandy plain, 3 miles in diameter,
and is surrounded by low hills on all sides except the north, wffiich is
open towards the river. The garrison now consists of one British
infantry regiment, two Native cavalry and four infantry regiments, a
mountain battery, and a bearer corps, belonging to the Peshawar
division of the Northern Command. The Kabul river is crossed by
a permanent bridge of boats, whence roads lead to Mardan and
Charsadda. The iron road and railway bridge across the river was
opened on December i, 1903. The village of Naushahra Khurd,
west of the cantonment, and tlie large village of Naushahra Kalan, on
the north bank of the Kabul, are both outside cantonment limits. The
head-quarters of the Naushahra tahsil^ with the police station, are in
the former, 3 miles from the cantonment. The town contains a
Government dispensary and a vernacular middle school, maintained
by the District board.

Naushahra Tahsil (or Sadikabad) (2 ). — Tahsil in the Khanpur
fiizdmat^ Bahawalpur State, Punjab, lying between 27® 56' and 28®

4 1 8 NA USHAJIJ^A TAJISIL

54' N. and 70° 7^ and 70° 36' E., with an area of 1,690 squaie miles.
The population 111 1901 was 80,735, compared with 66,584 in 1891. It
contains the town of Naushahra (population, 43475 )j the head-quarters ,
and 71 villages. The Hakra, which traverses the southern part of the
iahsll^ separates the central tract from the desert. Along the Indus
lie fertile lowlands. The land revenue and cesses in 1905-6 amounted
to 2 lakhs.

Naushahra Town (2). — Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same
name in Bahawalpur State, Punjab, situated in 28° 25' N. and 70® 19' E ,
109 miles south-west of Bahawalpur town. Population (1901), 4,475.
The town contains a nce-huskmg mill, started in 1901, and a dispen-
sar}^ The municipality had an income in 1903-4 of Rs 3,700, chiefly
from octroi.

Naushahro.— Subdivision of Hyderabad District, Smd, Bombay,
composed of the Sakrand, Moro, Naushahro Eiroz, Kandiaro,
and Nasrat tdlukas.

Naushahro Abro. — Tdluka of Sukkur District, Sind, Bombay,
lying between 27° 42' and 28® 2' N. and 68® 15' and 68° 48' E., wuth
an area of 408 square miles. The population rose from 66,227 in 1891
to 71,036 in 1901. The tdluka contains one town, Garhi Yasin
(population, 6,554), the head-quaiters , and 87 villages. The density,
147 persons per square mile, greatly exceeds the District average. The
land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to 2-8 lakhs. The tdluka
IS fertile and, together with the Shikarpur tdhika^ is the most prosperous
tract m the District. The chief crops are rict, jowdr, wheat, and gram,
which are irrigated from the Sukkur Canal.

Naushahro Firoz. — Tdluka in Hyderabad Distnct, Sind, Bom-
bay, lying between 26® 35' and 27® 8' N. and 67® 56' and 68° 25' E.,
with an area of 539 square miles. The population in 1901 w^as
97,506, compared with 90,976 m 1891. The density, 181 persons
per square mile, greatly exceeds the District average. The number
of villages is 105, of which Naushahro Firoz is the head-quarters. The
land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to about 2*3 lakhs.
The western portion of the tdluka is covered with forests, which
have suffered of late years from the encroachments of the river. About
two-thirds is irrigated by canals, aided by wells. The chief crops are
wheat, gram, and indigo.

Navalgund Taluka. — North-western tdluka of Dh§.rwar District,
Bombay,lying between i5®2i'and I5®53'N. and 75° 5' and 75°33'E.,
with an area of 565 square miles. It includes the petty subdivision
{petha) of Nargund. There are three towns, Annigeri (population,
7,172), Nargund (10,416), and Navalgund (7,862), the head-quar-
ters; and 83 villages. The population in 1901 was 94,709, compared
with 105,876 in 1891. Navalgund is the most thinly populated

XAVAXAGAR STATE

419

iahika in the District, with a density of 168 persons pei square mile
I'he demand foi land revenue in 1903-4 was 3*9 lakhs, and for cesses
Rs. 28,000. The idluka foims an expanse of black soil, with three
hills, namely, Gieat Nargund, Chik or Little Nargund, and Navalgund,
lunning fiom north-west to south-east The supply of drinking-water
IS chiefly from nveis. The lainfall, which averages 24 inches in the
year, is uncertain.

Navalgund Town. — Head-quarters of the taluka of the same name
m Dharwar Distnct, Bombay, situated in 15° 33' N. and 75*^ 21'' E.,
24 miles north-east of Dharwar town. Population (1901), 7,862. The
town IS celebrated for the excellence of its cotton carpets, and for its
superior breed of cattle, which are chiefly sold at the weekly market
on Tuesdays In 1454 it appears as the head-quarters of a sarkdr
under the Bahmani Sultan Ala-ud-din. In 1690, under Aurangzeb’s
governor of Savaniii, it was the head-quarters of a revenue division,
managed by an hereditary Lingayat officer styled the Desai of Navalgund.
In 1 747 It w’as ceded to the Peshwa. It was conquered by Tipii Sultan,
and taken from him by the Marathas, who gave the Desai’s family a
maintenance in land yielding Rs. 23,000 per annum. Between 1795
and 1800, in the struggles which convulsed the Maratha State, Dhundu
Pant Gokhale took Navalgund and Gadag from the hereditary Desai.
In 1837 General Munro appointed one Ram Rao as the military officer
of Navalgund, who seized possession of more than half the district,
and defeated the son of Gokhale. Hearing of this defeat, Gokhale
came from Badami and was himself defeated by General Munro,
marching from Dharwar. The Desai of Navalgund still enjoys some
tndm lands. In 1838 adoption was allowed, on condition that the
Desai abolished all duties on trade. A municipality was constituted
in 1870, of which the receipts during the decade ending 1901 averaged
Rs. 7,200. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 6,700. The town contains
a dispensary, and three schools, including one for girls.

Navanagar State. — Native State in the Kathiawar Political
Agency, Bombay, lying between 21® 44' and 22° 58' N. and 69° 20' and
70° 33' E., on the southern shore of the Gulf of Cutch, with an area
of 3.791 square miles. It is bounded on the north by the Gulf and
the Rann of Cutch , on the east by the Native States of Morvi, Rajkot,
Dhrol, and Gondal ; on the south by the Sorath division of Kathiawar ;
and on the west by the Okha Rann and the Arabian Sea. It is
generally flat, but about two-thirds of the Barda hills are contained
within Its limits. Mount Venu, the highest point of the Barda hills,
IS 2,057 above sea-level. The principal rivers are the Bhadar, the
Vartu, the Aji, and the Und. The harbours of Jodiya Salaya and
Navanagar or Bedi are situated within the State. Mangrove swamps
line the shores of the Gulf, affording large supplies of firewood and

420

NAVINAGAR STATE

pastuie. The Aloe httorale grows wild \ its stalks when cooked are
supposed to taste like asparagus. Formerly the Navanagai State was
infested by lions, which were especially numerous in the Barda and Alech
hills. In i860, however, when cannon were fiequently fiied m pursuit
of the rebel Vaghers, the lions fled from the hills, and are now only
found in the Gir foiest, and (rarely) in the Girnar mountain near
Junagarh Leopards, the hunting cheetah, and nilgai are common.
The climate, especially on the Gulf of Cutch, along which the terri-
tory extends, is good. The annual rainfall aveiages betw^een 20 and
30 inches.

The Jam of Navanagar is a Jadeja Rajput by caste, and belongs to
the same family as the Rao of Cutch. The Jadejas entered Kathiawar
from Cutch, and dispossessed the ancient family of Jethwas (probably
a branch of Jats) then established at Ghumli Subsequently, about
1535-7, Raw^al invaded Sorath and conquered the Jodiya, Amran,
and Khambhaliya parganas, and m 1540 founded the town of Navanagar.
He prosecuted his success with the assistance of his bi others HardoljT,
Ravoji, and Modji. HardoljT, the founder of the house of Dhrol,
conquered that pargafia from Damal Chavada and retained it Rajkot
IS also an offshoot of this State. The Jam in 1807 executed the usual
engagements to pay tnbute, to keep order in his teriitory, and not to
encroach on his neighbours. The Jadeja tribe was, at the beginning
of the last century, notorious for the systematic murder of female
children, to avoid the difficulty and expense of providing them with
husbands. Engagements were entered into by the Jadeja chiefs in
18 T 2 to abandon this custom; and, under the constant w^atchfulness
of the British officers, it is believed to be now extinct The Jam of
Navanagar is entitled to a salute of ii guns. He holds a sanad
authorizing adoption, and succession follows the rule of primogeniture.
The present Jam is the well-known cricketer, Ranjitsinghji

The population at the last four enumerations was (1872) 290,847,
(1881) 3x6,147, (1891) 379,611, and (1901) 336,779. The decrease m
the last decade (ir per cent.) was due to the famine of 1899-1900
Hindus numbei 262,880; Muhammadans, 52,684, and Jams, 21,006.
There are 3 towns and 666 villages, the capital of the State being
Navanagar Town.

The land produces both garden and ‘dry crops.’ Iirigation is
provided by draw-wells, by artificial tanks, and by aqueducts from rivers.
The total cultivable area is 1,960 square miles, 1,717 square miles
being under crops m 1903-4, of which 117 square miles were iirigated.
Survey operations are in progress m the State. The principal products
are grain and cotton. Jowdr, bdjra, wheat, and gram are the staple
food-crops. Wheat is produced without imgation. At Rawal about
3,000 acres are irrigated for rice. Cotton, sugar-cane, and tobacco are

XAFAXJGAjR town

42t

raised in small quantities. A reser\oir for the drinking supply of the
capital and for purposes of iiiigation has been built 8 miles south of
Navanagar town The only forests of any importance are those m the
noithern portion of the Eaida hills.

Marble of different qualities is found in the Kandoina and Bhanwar
talukas. Copper occuis in the Khambhaliya parga?m, but does not
pay woiking expenses. A small pearl fishery lies oif the coast on the
southern shore of the Gulf Clloth and silk are the chief manufactures.
A considerable number of people aie employed as dyers. The dyes
applied to the local fabiias aie much admiied, and their excellence is
traditionally attributed to the quality of the water of the Rangmati
river, which flows by Navanagar town. The railway has had no per-
ceptible effect on the trade of Navanagar poits, fiom which the giain
and cotton grown in the State are still shipped. A trade in isinglass
and shagreen is growing up, and the fisheries supply sole, pomphlet,
and whitebait. The State owns 299 vessels, and the coast is provided
with 4 lighthouses. The total value of imports by sea in 1903-4 was
27 lakhs, and of exports 15 lakhs. There is land communication by
carts, pack-bullocks, horses, and camels , and the capital is connected
with Rajkot by a metre-gauge railway 54*22 miles in length, owned
by the State.

Navanagar ranks as one of the first-class States of Kathiawar, and
its chief has power to try all offences, the trial of British subjects for
capital offences, however, requiring the previous permission of the Agent
to the Governor. The estimated gross revenue is 25 lakhs, chiefly
derived from land (19 lakhs) and customs (i|- lakhs). Tnbute of
Rs. 1,20,093 is paid jointly to the British Government, the Gaikwar
of Baroda, and the Nawab of Junagarh. No transit dues are levied.
The State has one municipality, with an income (1903-4) of Rs 33,000.
It maintains a squadron of Imperial Service Lancers, numbenng 145,
and a subordinate force of 211 men, of whom 26 are mounted. The
police force numbers 876, and there are 8 jails and 4 lock-ups with a
daily average in 1903-4 of 208 prisoners. The State contained in the
same year 122 schools with 11,771 pupils, and 22 medical institutions,
including 2 veterinary dispensaries treating 1,400 animals. In the
medical institutions 85,000 patients were treated m 1903-4; and the
number of persons vaccinated m the same year was 9,600

Navanagar Town (or Jamnagar). — Capital of the State of the
same name in Kathiawar, Bombay, situated in 22° 26' N. and 70*^
16' E., 310 miles noith-west of Bombay, and 5 miles east of the port of
Bedi. Population (1901), 53,844, of whom Hindus numbered 32,005,
Musalmans 17,027, and Jains 4,621. The town was founded by Jam
Rawal m 1540. It is almost entirely built of stone and is surrounded
by a fort erected in 1788. Navanagar is a flourishing place, nearly

422

NAVANAGAIt TOWN

4 miles in circuit, with a large trade. In the sea, north of the town,
are some beds of pearl oysters ; but the pearls are of inferior quality and
the fishery appears to be mismanaged. The out-turn realizes about
Rs. 4,000 annually. The town is also known for silken and gold
embroidery, for incense and perfumed oils, and for the kanktc or red
powder which is used to make the sectarian mark on the forehead of
Hindus. The value of imports at Bedi in 1903-4 was 172 lakhs, and
of the exports 5-3 lakhs. The dyeing is famous, and the water of the
Rangmati river is supposed to be especially favourable to this industry.
The climate is pleasant, and the palaces of Kotha, Lakhota, &c , are
very pictuiesque. Large quantities of plantains are grown in the
Navanagar gardens. Near by is the tomb of Jasa Ladhak. The town
possesses a clock-tower and a vegetable market.

Navarangapur. — Zamindan tahsiloi Vizagapatam District, Madras.
See Nowrangapur.

Navsari Prant. — A prmt or district of the Baroda State. It is
the most southerly of the four prdnfs into which the Gaikwar’s territory
IS divided, and is much intermingled with the Bntish District of Surat.
It is bounded on the north by Broach and the Rewa Kantha Agency ,
on the south by Surat District, Bansda, and the Dangs , on the east
by Khandesh , and on the west by Surat and the Arabian Sea. Its
area is 1,952 square miles, and it is traversed by the Kim, Tapti,
Mmdhola, Puma, and Ambika rivers. Two natural divisions may be
mentioned : the rani or forest tdlukas, and the msfi or peaceful and
populous tdlukas. The climate of the former is at all times
malarious, though least so in the hot season, and the water is full of
organic matter ; but the rash mahals are considered to be healthy
The ram tdlukas lie in the east, and contain ranges of hills varying
from 400 to 2,000 feet above sea-level, while the peak of Salher rises to
5,263 feet. Hot springs are found at Unhai in the Vyara tdluka.

The land is largely under cultivation, especially on the lower ground.
Where the general surface is fairly raised above the level of streams,
there is a good deal of grass and a fair quantity of Cassia auriadata.
The hedges round fields include various species of Capparideae, such
as Maesua^ Cadaba, and Capparis, with several Euphorbiaceae^ such as
Euphorbia anhquorum and Jatropha Curcas, and species of Zhyphus
and Grewia , Streblus asper is also frequent. The climbers in these
hedges include Leguminosae like Canavaha^ Asclepiadaceae like Deamia^
and various Convolvulaceae. Weeds in waste ground include Argemone
7 nexicana^ Tridax procumbens^ Achyranthes aspera, Calotropis gigantea,
Sixid Tephrosia purpurea , field-weeds mclude such species as Biophytum
sensthvum, Blumea eriantha^ Launaea nudicauhs, Siefnodta viscosa^
Panicum prostratuin^ and Difiebra arabica. In the neighbourhood
of dwellings are many planted sub-spontaneous species, such as

MirsAi^i prAxt

423

mango, tamarind, banyan, fij^al and othei species of A?to;ia

squamosa, and Artocar^us intcgrifoha.

The population was eslimated in 1872 at 241,255. At later
enumerations it was (r88i) 287,549, (1S91) 319,443, and (1901)
300,441. In the last year Hindus numbeied 126,624, Animists,
138,034 ; Musalmans, 25,451 ; and Paisls, 7,589 The prd?if is divided
into eight tdhikas or mahdis, and peihas or ^\Ay-7nahdls, statistics
regaiding which in 1901 are shown below —

Tahika

Area in square
miles

Nur

nber of

Population

« t 1

Population peri
square mile |

Percentag^e of
variation in
population be-
tween 1891
and igoi.

eS-SJ

1 1 ^
a

Navsaii

125

59.875

479

+ II 9

11.476

Gandevi

30,920

672

- 5-8

37905

Mahuva

143

337/20

236

- 5 ^>

1,646

Vyara

360

153

447237

123

-17.0

1.518

Songarh

344

152

28,217

642

Vajpnr

460

( 5 , 2 1 8

— 26*8

175

Velachha

149

22.567

I5I

— n.i

1,172

Vakal

7.922

102

-25-7

Kamrej

156

4I7479

266

- 73

4,921

Palsana

25,286

278

+ o.i

2,811

Total

1.953

773

300,441

154

+ 5'9

28,364

The number of towns is 6 and of villages 772, the former being
NavsIri, Vyara, Gandevi, Bilimora, Kathor, and Songarh
About 75 per cent, of the population speak Gujarati, and 21 per cent
various Bhil dialects. The chief animistic tribes are the Gamits
(38,000), Dublas (28,000), Chodhras (23,000), Bhils (16,000), and
Dhodias (1,000)

The soils are classified as light sandy loam or gordt, and black soil,
with an intermediate class known as besdr Gordt produces all kinds
of ‘dry crops,’ and when watered and manured is valuable. Rice
and cotton are the chief products m the black soil. The principal
crops grown are jowdr, rice, wheat, bdjra, kodra, ndgh, bdvio, tuver,
ml, peas, gram, mag, math, udid, dwelt, tal, cotton, hemp, tobacco,
sugar-cane, plantain, bhoising, &c. The most valuable stock are the
large powerful cattle known as hedia

This prdnt is noted for its forests, the area of the Reserves being
547 square miles These are now under a system of strict conservancy
and yield a considerable income. The principal timber trees are teak,
shisham {Dalbergia Sissoo), khair (Acacia Catechu), bia {FterocarJ>us
Marsuptmn), haladmn (Adina cordifolta), temru (Diospyros inelan-
oxylofi), and sadad (Terminaha tomenfosa).

The chief industry is the weaving of cotton cloth. Embroidery to

424

NA VSARI PRINT

a small extent, the manufacture of gold ornaments, a little lough
iron-work, brass- and copper-work, wood- and ivory-carving are also
carried on. But though arts and manufactures are scanty, trade and
commerce flourish fairly well. The agricultural and forest wealth is
great, and there is a considerable export of toddy, 'plantains, sugar-
cane, rice, jowdr, molasses, sugar, teak, sadad, and other produce.
The import trade too is good, the chief articles being European
piece-goods, stationery, iron-ware, glass-ware, umbrellas, and brass and
copper vessels Tiade is carried on partly by sea from Bilimora and
Navsaxi, but chiefly by railway. In this latter respect the prdfit is well
served, for the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway runs from
north to south, and the Tapti Valley Railway crosses it from east to west
Roads lead from Sayan to Kathor, Bilimora to Gandevi, Kosamba
to Velachha, Maroli to Navsari, and Vyara to the Unhai hot springs

The land revenue mcreased from 19 5 lakhs in 1881 to 21*4 lakhs
in 1891, but fell to 19-3 lakhs in 1901 In 1904-5 the demand was
16 4 lakhs, of which 157 lakhs was collected. Most of the prdnt was
settled between 1896 and 1903, and the assessment of portions is now
being revised In a few villages m the Songarh tdluka land was
formeily assessed on the number of ploughs used in cultivation, but
this method has been replaced by the ordinary system. The average
assessment in different idlukas varies from Rs. 1--4 to Rs. 3-2 per
hlgha acre) for ‘dry ’ land, and from Rs. 3-9 to Rs. 5-12 for ‘wet ’
land

The prdnt contains six municipalities, two of which — Navsari and
Gandevi — have partly elective boards, with a total income of
Rs. 12,000 from cusioms, excise, and tolls, besides a grant of
Rs. 5,500, while the" other four — Bilimora, Kathor, Vyara, and Son-
garh — derive their income of Rs 4,000 entirely from grants from the
State, A District 'joard and local boards were constituted m 1905,

The admimstiation of the prdnt is carried on by the Subah, who
has his head-quarters at Navsari. Here also are the court of the prdnt
Judge and the head offices of other departments Education is well
provided for, as there are two high schools (at Navsari and Gandevi),
three Anglo-vernacular schools, and 21 1 vernacular schools, the total
number of pupils in 1904-5 being 13,133 At the civil hospital at
Navsari town and seven dispensaries elsewhere, 41,266 patients were
treated in 1904-5, of whom 74 were in-patients.

Navsari Taluka. — South-western tdluka of the Navsari prdnt,
Baroda State, with an area of 125 square miles. Population rose from
53,523 in 1891 to 59,875 in 1901. The tdluka contains one town,
Navsari (population, 21,451), the head-quarters; and 60 villages. It
is a flat plain, with two rivers running through it, the Mindhola on the
nortli and the Puma on the south. The soil is black, gordt or light

MIFSAJ^I TOU\Y

4=S

red, and besdr or mixed, except in the western put, which is marshy
swamp. Among the chief crops produced are jowdr^ nee, cotton,
castor-seed, and sugar-cane. In 1904-5 the land icvenue was
Rs 2,37,900.

Navsari Town. — Head-quarters of the J)rd?it of the same name,
Baroda State, situatedji^n 20° 57' N. and 72° 56' E., 147 miles fiom
Bombay, with which it is connected by the main line of the Bombay,
Baroda, and Cential India Railway. It is an ancient place, known
to Ptolemy as Nasaripa. Population (1901), 21,451, including 12,357
Hindus, 4,756 Parsis, and 2,753 Musalmans The town is intimately
connected with the history of the Parsis in India. After the flight
from Persia of those Zoroastrians who refused to abandon their faith
at the bidding of the Muhammadan conquerois, a large band landed
on the western coast of Gujarat, of whom some betook themselves
to Navsari in 1142. Here they throve and prospered, and their
moheds or sacerdotal class thereafter made the town their stronghold,
a position which has been maintained to the present day. The town
itself shows signs of comfort and even of wealth, the streets are well
watered, and the sanitation is praiseworthy. In the country round
about are numerous detached houses with good gardens, the property
of wealthy ParsI merchants who have retired from business elsewhere
to their ancestral home. In the neighbourhood of these houses are
plantations of date-palms, which are resorted to by visitors and inhabi-
tants alike for the purpose of imbibing the famous toddy of the district.
Date-palms grow everywhere, but the toddy that is obtained near
Navsari is deemed the most delicious and healthy Owing to the
proximity of the town to the sea, the dim at ^ is pleasant from the
middle of April to the middle of June, as a mild breeze constantly
cools the air The water too is accounted most wholesome. Malhar
Rao Gaikwar was fond of living here, and it was in this town that
he was married for the fourth time. Before celebrating the nuptials
he was married m due foim to a silk cotton-tree, which was then
formally destroyed, the object being to avert misfortune He had
been married twice, but had no son and heir , and it was hoped by
destroying his third wife, the tree, that his fourth venture would prove
fortunate. Among public buildings of importance are the high school
and the Anglo-vernacular school, the former known as the Sir Kawasji
Jahangir Zarthosti Madrasa, and the latter as the Dadabhai Kawasjl
Tata school. Both buildings are modem, and the Baroda State has
libeially assisted in their construction and maintenance There are
also a civil hospital, a public market, a library and reading-room, a jail,
a distillery, and fine offices for the Subah and prdnt Judge. Among
other objects of interest in Navsari are the Towers of Silence for the
reception of the Parsi dead, the large Fire-Temple known as Aiash

426

NAVSARI TOWN

Bahram, and the smaller ones or agldrts. To the larger temple all the
young mobeds from Bombay and elsewhere are sent for confirmation,
or to receive the apostolic succession of their order.

The town was once famous for its cotton cloth, which was in great
demand at the English and Dutch factories of Surat in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries for export to Europe; but this is produced
no longer Hand-loom weaving is earned on to some extent, but
only coaise garments are made. The manufacture of the kusti or
sacred thread of the Parsis, woven only by the wives of the mobeds^
is however a work of considerable skill. The threads are largely
exported to all parts of India, and the monopoly secures an industry
for mobed ladies. There is also a soap and perfumery factory on the
outskirts of the town, which has met with some measure of success.
Many workers produce articles of copper, brass, iron, wood, and
leather, for local use A boot and shoe manufactory has lately been
established.

Navsto is administered by a municipality, reorganized in 1905 on
a partly elective basis, which has an income of Rs. 8,500 from customs,
excise, and tolls, besides a State grant of Rs 5,500 The town has
a large import and export trade by both rail and water. For the latter
the Puma river, on the left or south bank of which the town is situated,
affords fair conveniences, and the harbour is being improved.

Nawa. — Town in the Sambhar district of the State of Jodhpur,
Rajputana, situated in 27° i' N and 75® i' E., on the northern edge
of the Sambhar Lake, about a mile east of Kuchawan Road station,
a junction of the Rajputana-Malwa and Jodhpur-Bikanei Railways.
The town is walled, and had in 1901 a population of 5,640. There
is a large export trade m salt, the manufacture of which supports
a considerable proportion of the people. Another important industry
is the manufacture of quilts embroidered with elaborate designs. In
the town are a post office, an Anglo-vernacular school, and a small
hospital. A separate district of Nawa existed up to 1902-3, when
It was amalgamated with that of Sambhar.

Nawabganj Tahsil (i). — Head-quarters tahsil of Bara Bank! Dis-
trict, United Piovinces, comprising the parganas of Nawabganj, Partab-
ganj, Satrikh, and Dewa, and lying between 26° 43' and 27° 8^ N. and
81° i' and 81^ 26' E , with an area of 361 square miles. Population in-
creased from 242,975 m 1891 to 254,160 in 1901. There are 390 villages
and five towns, Nawabganj (population, 14,478), the tahsil head-quarters,
and Zaidpur (9,700) being the largest. The demand for land revenue
m 1903-4 was Rs. 4,95,000, and for cesses Rs 76,000. The density
of population, 704 persons per square mile, is the highest in the
District. The tahsil is bounded on the north-east by the Kalyani, and
the southern part is drained by the Reth, both rivers being tributaries

a : / ivA/^o, t^y TO irx

of the Gumth It lies in the fci tile upland aiea, and oontains a niunbei
of jAi/s oi swamps used foi uiigation. In 1903-4 the aioa under
cultivation was 252 square miles, of which toi were irrip;atod. Wells
supply a lathcr largei aiea than tanks 01 swamps

Nawabganj Town (r). — Ilead-quarteis of the /(zAsI/ of the same
name in Bdia lianki Distiict, United riovinces, situated in 26® 52' N and
81® 12' E , close to the Baia Bank! station of the Oiidh and Rohilkhand
Railway and on the Lucknow-Fyzabad load. Population (1901), 14,478.
A country house was built here by Nawab Shuja-ud-daula of Oudh,
and the town sprang up under xVsaf-ud-daula. In the Mutiny it
formed a centre of disaffection, and was the scene of a signal defeat
of the insurgent aimy by a British force under Sir Hope Grant. It
has since become viitually the head-quaitcrs of the Distiict, the couits
being situated in the neighbouiing town of Bara Bank!. Nawabganj
contains a high school, three saralsy male and female dispensaries, and
a fine campanile erected by private subscription. Municipal adminis-
tration was introduced in 1868, and during the ten years ending 1901
the income and expenditure averaged Rs 20,000. In 1903-4 the
income was Rs. 24,000, including octroi (Rs. 10,000), tax on trades
(Rs. 3,000), and rents (Rs. 4,000) ; and the expenditure was also
Rs, 24,000. There is a considerable trade in grain and cloth. The
place was formerly noted for sugar, but the traffic in this is declining.
Cotton cloth is woven, and excellent curtains are made of cotton
prints. There are four schools with 520 pupils.

Nawabganj Tahsll (2). — East central tahstl of Bareilly District,
United Provinces, conterminous with the parga?m of the same name,
lying between 28° 21' and 28° 39' N. and 79® 28' and 79° 47' E., with
an area of 221 square miles Population increased from 124,349 in
1891 to 127,160 in 1901. There are 308 villages and three towns,
none of which has a population of 5,000. The demand for land
levenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 2,51,000, and for cesses Rs. 42,000. The
density of population, 575 persons per square mile, is below the
District average. The tahsll is a gently sloping plain, intersected by
several small rivers from which canals aie drawn. It is not so damp as
the Baheri tahsll to the north, but the increase in population between
1891 and 1901 was less than in the south of the District. Rice and
sugar-cane are largely grown. In 1903-4, 178 square miles were
cultivated, of which 55 were inigated. Canals supply half the irrigated
area, and wells most of the remainder.

Nawabganj Town (2) (or Baragharia Nawabganj). — Town in
Malda District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 24® 36'' N. and
88® 17' E., on the Mahananda, a little above its junction with the
Ganges. Population (1901), 17,016. A steamer service plying from
Godagari to English Baz^ calls here, and it is the seat of a brisk trade.

VOL. xvin. E e

428 NAWABGANJ TOWX

It is the most populous town m the Distiict, and was constituted a
municipality in 1903 In 1904-5 the municipal income was Rs. 6,600,
mainly from a tax on peisons (or propeity tax) ; and the expendituie
was Rs, 4,900.

Nawabganj Town (3). — Town in the Tarabganj tahsll of Gonda Dis-
trict, United Provinces, situated in 26° 52' N. and 82® 9^ E., on the
road from Gonda to Fyzabad, and on the Bengal and Noith- Western
Railway. Population (1901), 7,047. The town was founded in the
eighteenth century by Nawab Shuja-ud-daula, as a bazar foi the supply
of provisions to his camp when on shooting expeditions. It now con-
tains a large giain-market, a dispensary, and a branch of the Amencan
Methodist Mission. Nawabganj was administered as a municipalit)
fiom 1875 to 1904, when it was declaied a ‘notified area ’ During the
ten years ending 1901 the income and expendituie aveiaged Rs 12,000
and Rs. 11,000 lespectively In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 12,000,
chiefly deiived from taxes on professions and on pioperty, and fiom
rents; and the expendituie was Rs. 11,000. There is a laige expoit
tiade in gram and oilseeds but the opening of othei railways has
diveited traffic. Two schools have 190 pupils.

Nawada Subdivision. — Eastern subdivision of (iaya District,
Bengal, lying between 24° 31' and 25® N. and 85® 17'' and 86® 3' E ,
with an area of 955 square miles The population in 1901 was 453,868,
compared with 439,565 in 1891. The north of the subdivision
is an alluvial plain, while the south is hilly and coveied with jungle.
The latter tract, which includes a portion of the northern fringe of
the Chota Nagpur plateau, is very sparsely populated , the density foi
the whole subdivision is 475 persons per square mile. It contains
two towns, Nawada (population, 5,908), its head-quarteis, and Hisua
(6,704); and 1,752 villages At Afsar are some impoitant archaeo-
logical remains, including a fine statue of the Vaiaha, or boai
incarnation of Vishnu, and the luins of a temple.

Nawada To wn,~ Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same
name m Gaya District, Bengal, situated m 24° 53^ N. and 85® 33' E.
on both banks of the Khuri river. Population (1901), 5,908. Since
the opening of the South Bihar Railway, on which it is a station,
Nawada is growing into an important trade centre. It contains the
usual public offices ; the sub-jail has accommodation for 20 prisoners

Nawalgarh. — Chief town of an estate of the same name in the
Shekhawati ?iizamat of the State of Jaipur, Rajputana, situated in
27® 51' N. and 75° 16' E., about 75 miles north-west of Jaipur city.
Population (1901), 12,315. The town, which is fortified with ramparts
of masonry, possesses 9 schools attended by about 400 pupils, and
a combined post and telegraph office. There are three Thakurs of
Nawalgarh, who pay collectively to the Darbai a tribute of Rs. 9,240.

x.urxGJVJjrx 4,9

Nawalpitr.— Kstule in Khandt^sh Distiict, Bomba\. Mrhwas
Estates.

Nawashahr Tahsil,- Eastern Jullundm Distiict, Punjab,

lying on the north bank of the Sutlej, between 30° 58' and 31° if N.
and 75° 47' a-nd yti® 16' Pk, Xith an area of 304 square miles. The
population in 1901 ^Yas 196,339, compared with 205,625 in 1891 The
head-quarteis are at the towm of Nawashahr (population, 5,641); and
it also contains the towns of Rahon (8,651) and Banga (4,697), with
274 villages. The land levenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to
4*4 lakhs. The Sutlej forms the southern boundaiy of the and
the low-lying tiact along the river has an aveiage breadth of 4 miles.
The upland plateau above the old high hank is an almost unbroken
plain ^\lth a stiff loam soil.

Nawashahr Town { i }.— Hcad-(iuaiteis of the /a/isf/ of the same
name in Jullundui Distnet, Punjab, situated in 31° 8' N. and 76° f E.
Population (1901), 5,641 A stionghold of the Sikh chief, Taia Smgh,
Ghaiba, it was annexed aftei his death by Ranjit Singh. It is of no
commercial inipoitaiu'e. The municipality was cieated in 1867. The
income during the ten }eai.s ending 1902-3 aveiaged Rs. 4,600, and
the expendituie Rs. 4,700 In 1902-3 the income was Rs. 4,800,
chiefly from octioi , and the expenditure w^as Rs. 5,300. 7 "he munici-
pality nuintains an Anglo-veinacular middle school.

Nawashahr Town (2).— Town in the Abbr)ttabad iaiisll ol Hazaia
District, North-West Fiontiei Province, situated in 34° 10' N. and
73° 16' Pk, about 3 miles east of Abbottabad. Population (1901),
4,114, Befoie the foundation of Abbottabad it was the chief town of
the Rash plain. The municipality was created in 1867. During the
ten year^i ending 1902-3 the income averaged Rs. 2,600, and the
expenditure R.s. 2,500. In 1903-4 the income ivas Rs. 2,700, chiefly
from octroi ; and the expenditure was Rs. 2,800.

Nawngwawn (Buimese, Xaungium 01 Xaia?g?uo 7 i) State
in the central division of the Southern Shan States, Burma, lying in
the valley of the Nam 'Pamhpak, between 20® 33' and 20® 36' N. and
97° lo"' and 97° 22' E., with an area of 42 squaie miles. It is bounded
on the north by Namhkok ; on the east by Mbngpawn; on the
south by Wanyin , and on the west by Yawnghwe. Loiseng, one of the
highest peaks in tlie Southern Shan States, over 8,000 feet above sea-
level, stands on its eastern border. Irrigated rice, plantains, and
ground-nuts aie the mam crops. The population, which is almost
entirely Shan, numbered 4,805 in 1901, distributed in 78 villages. The
head-quarters of the Myoza are at Nawngwawn (population, 583), on
the Nam Tamhpak. The revenue in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 7,400,
the mam source being ihathmieda ; the chief items of expenditure were
tribute (Rs. 2,500), and pay and administration (Rs. 3,000).

430 JVAYA DUMKA

Naya Dumka. — Head-quarteis of the Santal Parganas District,
Bengal. See Dumka.

Nayagarh State. — One of the Tributary States of Orissa, Bengal,
lying between 19® 53' and 20® 20' N and 84^48'' and 85° 15' E., with
an area of 588 square miles. It is bounded on the north by the State
of Khandpaia and Purl District , on the east by Ranpur , on the south
by Purl District ; and on the west by Daspalla and the Madras District
of Ganjam The State is a fine property and capable of great develop-
ment. It abounds in noble scenery, and a splendid range of hills,
varying from 2,000 to 3,000 feet in height, runs through its centre. It
exports rice, cotton, sugar-cane, and several kinds of oilseeds and
cereals to the neighbouring Districts of Cuttack, Puri, and Ganjam.
Towards the south and south-east the country is exceedingly wild
and hilly, and is inhabited by turbulent Khonds, who aie sometimes
a source of terror to their moie peaceful neighbours. In 1894 they
revolted against the chief, and committed many murders and other
outrages, but were put down with the aid of the Government militaiy
police. The State is alleged to have been founded about 500 years
ago by a scion of the ruling family of Rewah in Central India. Khand-
para, which was originally part of Nayagarh, became independent about
200 years ago. Nayagarh has a levenue of Rs. 1,20,000, and pays
a tribute of Rs. 5,525 to the British Government. The population
increased from 117,862 in 1891 to 140,779 in 1901, when the density
was 239 persons per square mile. The State contains 775 villages,
the principal bemg Nayagarh, which contains the lesidence of the
Raja and is connected by road with Khurda in Puri District, Hindus
number 133,995 ; Animists, 6,190 ; and Muhammadans, 585. The most
numerous castes are Chasas (41,000), Pans (13,000), Gaurs (11,000),
and Brahmans and Khonds (r 0,000 each). The State maintains a
middle English school, 3 upper primary and 48 lower primary schools,
and a dispensary.

Nayagarh Village. — Head-quarters of the Orissa Tributary State
of the same name, Bengal, situated in 20® 8' N. and 85® 6' E. Popula-
tion (1901), 3,340. The village contains the residence of the Raja
and is connected by road with Khurda m Puri District

||xford • Printed at the Claren|ion Press by HORACE Hart,

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Texts

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The Imperial Gazetter Of India Vol Xviii"

See other formats